The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies gained independence from the British Empire to become the United States of America. John Trumbull ( June 6, 1756 &ndash November 10, 1843) was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary John Trumbull 's Declaration of Independence is a 12-by 18- foot oil-on-canvas in the United States Capitol Rotunda The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met beginning in May 10 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə The Thirteen Colonies were part of what became known as British America, a name that was used by Great Britain until the Treaty of Paris (1783 recognized the The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In this period, the Colonies united against the British Empire and entered into the armed conflict known as the Revolutionary War (also, mostly in British usage, "American War of Independence"), between 1775 and 1783. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" This resulted in an American Declaration of Independence in 1776, and victory on the battlefield in October 1781. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then
The revolutionary era began in 1763, when the French military threat to British North American colonies ended. The French and Indian War (1754&ndash1763 was the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War. Adopting the view that the colonies should pay a substantial portion of the costs associated with keeping them in the Empire, Britain imposed a series of taxes followed by other laws that proved extremely unpopular. The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III c The Intolerable Acts or the Coercive Acts are names used to describe a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 relating to Britain's colonies Because the colonies lacked elected representation in the governing British Parliament many colonists considered the laws to be illegitimate and a violation of their rights as Englishmen. " No taxation without representation " began as a Slogan in the period 1763–1776 that summarized a primary grievance of the British Colonists The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories The Sons of Liberty was a Secret organization of American Patriots which originated in the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution. The Rights of Englishmen is a term that refers to the rights granted English subjects in the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and other Beginning in 1772, Patriot groups began to create committees of correspondence which would lead to their own Provincial Congress in each of most of the colonies. This article concerns Patriots in the American Revolution. For other uses see Patriot (disambiguation. The committees of correspondence were bodies organized by the local governments of the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution for the purposes of coordinating " Provincial Congress " can refer to one of several extra-legal legislative bodies established in some of the Thirteen Colonies early in the American Revolution In the course of a few years, the Provincial Congresses or their equivalents effectively replaced the British ruling apparatus in the former colonies, and culminated in the Continental Congress. The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the
After protests in Boston, the British sent combat troops, the Americans mobilized their militia, and fighting broke out in 1775. The ComBat was an Aluminium Cricket bat and the subject of an incident that occurred at the WACA cricket ground in Perth in December 1979. The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service Although Loyalists were estimated to comprise 15-20% of the population,[1] throughout the war the Patriots generally controlled 80-90% of the territory; the British could hold only a few coastal cities. This article concerns Loyalists in the American Revolution. For information on the role of those Loyalists in Canadian history after their emigration see United Empire This article concerns Patriots in the American Revolution. For other uses see Patriot (disambiguation. In 1776, representatives of the Thirteen Colonies voted unanimously to adopt a Declaration of Independence, by which they established the United States. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The Americans formed an alliance with France in 1778 that evened the military and naval strengths, later bringing Spain and the Dutch Republic into the conflict by their own alliance with France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Two main British armies were captured by the Continental Army, at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781, leading to peace with the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The American Continental Army was an Army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America Background See also Saratoga campaign The British plan and Howe's blunder The original conception of the campaign had been for Burgoyne with some eight The Siege of Yorktown or Battle of Yorktown in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, and approved by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784, formally
The American Revolution included a series of broad intellectual and social shifts that occurred in the early American society, such as the new republican ideals that took hold in the American population. Republicanism is the Value system of Governance that has been a major part of American civic thought since the American Revolution In some colonies, sharp political debates broke out over the role of democracy in government, with some of even the most liberal Founding Fathers fearing mob rule. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the Ochlocracy ( Greek: οχλοκρατία or okhlokratía; Latin: ochlocratia) is government by mob or a mass of people The American shift to republicanism, as well as the gradually expanding democracy, caused an upheaval of the traditional social hierarchy, and created the ethic that formed the core of American political values. [2]
Contents |
Origins
Liberalism and republicanism
John Locke's ideas on liberalism greatly influenced the political minds behind the revolution; for instance, his theory of the "social contract" implied the natural right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order In Political philosophy, the right of revolution (or right of rebellion) is a Right or Duty, variously stated throughout history of a people The Rights of Englishmen is a term that refers to the rights granted English subjects in the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and other [3] In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans used Montesquieu's analysis of the ideally "balanced" British Constitution. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng
A motivating force behind the revolution was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism", which was dominant in many of the colonies by 1775. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty The "country party" in Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was to be feared, influenced American politicians. Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain The colonists associated the "court" with luxury and inherited aristocracy, which many British Americans increasingly condemned. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Corruption was the greatest possible evil, and civic virtue required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community Men had a civic duty to fight for their country. For women, "republican motherhood" became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation. " Republican Motherhood " identifies the concept related to women's roles as mothers in the emerging United States before and after the American Revolution Abigail Adams (née Smith (November 11 1744 &ndash October 28 1818 was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States, and mother of John Mercy Otis Warren ( September 14, 1728 &ndash October 19, 1814) was an American writer and playwright The "Founding Fathers" were strong advocates of republicanism, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams. Samuel Adams ( – October 2 1803 was an American Statesman, Politician, Writer and political philosopher, brewer Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence [4]
Navigation Acts
Great Britain regulated the economies of the colonies through the Navigation Acts according to the doctrines of mercantilism, which stated that anything that benefited the Empire (and hurt other empires) was good policy. The English Navigation Acts were a series of Laws which restricted the use of foreign Shipping and trade between England (later the Kingdom of Great Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices The Writs of Assistance is a legal document that serves as a general Search warrant. The English Navigation Acts were a series of Laws which restricted the use of foreign Shipping and trade between England (later the Kingdom of Great Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices Widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance), strict enforcement of these Acts became the practice. The Writs of Assistance is a legal document that serves as a general Search warrant. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. James Otis Jr (February 5 1725 &ndash May 23 1783 was a lawyer in colonial Massachusetts who was an early advocate of the political views that led to the American The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, "American independence was then and there born. John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. "
In 1762, Patrick Henry argued the Parson's Cause in Virginia, where the legislature had passed a law and it was vetoed by the King. Patrick Henry ( May 29, 1736 June 6, 1799) was a prominent figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for his " The "Parson's Cause" was an important legal and political dispute in the Colony of Virginia often viewed as an important event leading up to the American Revolution Henry argued, "that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience. "[5]
Western Frontier
The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonization across the Appalachian Mountains as this was to be Indian Reserve. The Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763 by King George III following Great Britain 's acquisition of French territory The Quebec Act of 1774 was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (citation 14 Geo The Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763 by King George III following Great Britain 's acquisition of French territory The Appalachian Mountains ( often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. The Indian Reserve was a territory under British rule in North America set aside in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 for use by Native Americans Regardless, groups of settlers continued to move west and lay claim to these lands. The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but its promulgation and the fact that it had been written without consulting Americans angered the colonists. The Quebec Act of 1774 extended Quebec's boundaries to the Ohio River, shutting out the claims of the thirteen colonies. The Quebec Act of 1774 was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (citation 14 Geo Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk The Ohio River is the largest Tributary by volume of the Mississippi River. By then, however, the Americans had little regard for new laws from London; they were drilling militia and organizing for war. [6]
Taxation without representation
By 1763, Great Britain possessed vast holdings in North America. " No taxation without representation " began as a Slogan in the period 1763–1776 that summarized a primary grievance of the British Colonists British North America consisted of the colonies and territories of the British Empire in continental North America after the end of the American Revolutionary In addition to the thirteen colonies, twenty-two smaller colonies were ruled directly by royal governors. Victory in the Seven Years' War had given Great Britain New France (Canada), Spanish Florida, and the Native American lands east of the Mississippi River. The Seven Years' War (1756&ndash1763 involved all of the major European powers of the period causing 900000 to 1400000 deaths The Viceroyalty of New France (Nouvelle-France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Spanish Florida ( Spanish: La Florida) refers to the Spanish Colony of Florida. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States The Mississippi River is the second longest River in the United States, with a length of from its source in Lake Itasca in Minnesota to In North America there were six Colonies that remained loyal to Britain. The colonies included: Province of Quebec, Province of Nova Scotia, Colony of Bermuda, Province of West Florida and the Province of East Florida. In 1765 however, the colonists still considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same historic rights and obligations as subjects in Britain. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy [7]
The British did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of debt incurred during the French and Indian War, but they did expect a portion of the expenses for colonial defense to be paid by the Americans. The French and Indian War (1754&ndash1763 was the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War. Estimating the expenses of defending the continental colonies and the West Indies to be approximately £200,000 annually, the British goal after the end of this war was that the colonies would be taxed for £78,000 of this needed amount. [8] The issues with the colonists were both that the taxes were high and that the colonies had no representation in the Parliament which passed the taxes. Lord North in 1775 argued for the British position that Englishmen paid on average twenty-five shillings annually in taxes whereas Americans paid only sixpence (the average Englishman, however, also earned quite a bit more). [9] Colonists, however, as early as 1764, with respect to the Sugar Act, indicated that “the margin of profit in rum was so small that molasses could bear no duty whatever. The Sugar Act (citation 4 Geo III c 15 officially called the American Revenue Act, passed on April 5, 1764, was a revenue-raising Act ”[10]
The phrase "No taxation without representation" became popular in many American circles. " No taxation without representation " began as a Slogan in the period 1763–1776 that summarized a primary grievance of the British Colonists London argued that the Americans were represented "virtually"; but most Americans rejected the theory that men in London, who knew nothing about their needs and conditions, could represent them. Virtual representation was a concept in Hanoverian Britain based on the belief that men without the vote such as persons in some cities in England such as Manchester in the [11]
New taxes 1764
In 1764, Parliament enacted the Sugar Act and the Currency Act, further vexing the colonists. The Sugar Act (citation 4 Geo III c 15 officially called the American Revenue Act, passed on April 5, 1764, was a revenue-raising Act The Currency Act of 1764 is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (citation 4 Geo The Battle of Golden Hill was a clash between British Soldiers and British colonists that occurred on January 19 1770 in New York City Quartering Act is the name of at least two acts of the Parliament of Great Britain. The Sugar Act (citation 4 Geo III c 15 officially called the American Revenue Act, passed on April 5, 1764, was a revenue-raising Act The Currency Act of 1764 is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (citation 4 Geo Protests led to a powerful new weapon, the systemic boycott of British goods. A boycott is a form of Consumer activism involving the act of voluntarily abstaining from using buying or dealing with someone or some other organization as an expression of The British pushed the colonists even further that same year by also enacting the Quartering Act, which stated that British soldiers were to be cared for by residents in certain areas. Quartering Act is the name of at least two acts of the Parliament of Great Britain.
Stamp Act 1765
In 1765 the Stamp Act was the first direct tax ever levied by Parliament on the colonies. The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III c The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III c All newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, and official documents—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps. All 13 colonies protested vehemently, as popular leaders such as Patrick Henry in Virginia and James Otis in Massachusetts, rallied the people in opposition. A secret group, the "Sons of Liberty" formed in many towns and threatened violence if anyone sold the stamps, and no one did. The Sons of Liberty was a Secret organization of American Patriots which originated in the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice-admiralty court and looted the elegant home of the chief justice, Thomas Hutchinson. Thomas Hutchinson ( September 9 1711 June 3 1780) was the royal governor of Massachusetts from 1771 to 1774 and a prominent Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting in the building that would become Federal Hall in New York City in October of 1765 consisting of delegates from 9 of the 13 colonies Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" stating that taxes passed without representation violated their Rights of Englishmen. John Dickinson ( November 8 1732 – February 14 1808) was an American Lawyer and Politician from Philadelphia The Boston Statement of Rights and Grievences was a document created during the Stamp Act Congress declaring that taxes imposed on British Colonists The Rights of Englishmen is a term that refers to the rights granted English subjects in the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and other Lending weight to the argument was an economic boycott of British merchandise, as imports into the colonies fell from £2,250,000 in 1764 to £1,944,000 in 1765. In London, the Rockingham government came to power and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or send an army to enforce it. Charles Watson-Wentworth 2nd Marquess of Rockingham KG, PC (13 May 1730 &ndash 1 July 1782 styled The Hon Benjamin Franklin eloquently made the American case, explaining the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood in defense of the empire in a series of wars against the French and Indians, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax, but in a "Declaratory Act" of March 1766 insisted that parliament retained full power to make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever. The "Declaratory Act" may also refer to the Dependency of Ireland on Great Britain Act 1719. "[5]
Townshend Act 1767 and Boston Massacre 1770
In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which placed a tax on a number of essential goods including paper, glass, and tea. The Townshend Acts (1767 passed by Parliament on 29 June 1767 refer to two Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain passed in 1767 originally proposed by Charles This article is about the 1770 incident The Boston Massacre is also used colloquially to describe portions of a Yankees-Red Sox rivalry. The Townshend Acts (1767 passed by Parliament on 29 June 1767 refer to two Acts of the Parliament of Great Britain passed in 1767 originally proposed by Charles Angered at the tax increases, colonists organized a boycott of British goods. In Boston on March 5, 1770, a large mob gathered around a group of British soldiers. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1770 ( MDCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Friday The mob grew more and more threatening, throwing snowballs,rocks and debris at the soldiers. One soldier was clubbed and fell. All but one of the soldiers fired into the crowd. Eleven people were hit; Three civilians were killed at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. This article is about the 1770 incident The Boston Massacre is also used colloquially to describe portions of a Yankees-Red Sox rivalry. Although the soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), the exaggerated and widespread descriptions soon became propaganda to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This in turn began a downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts.
Tea Act 1773
In June 1772, in what became known as the Gaspée Affair, a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations was burned by American patriots. The Tea Act was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (13 Geo III c The Boston Tea Party was an act of Direct action protest by the American colonists against the British Government in which they destroyed many The Gaspée Affair was a significant event in the American Revolution. Soon afterwards, Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Massachusetts reported that he and the royal judges would be paid directly from London, thus bypassing the colonial legislature. Thomas Hutchinson ( September 9 1711 June 3 1780) was the royal governor of Massachusetts from 1771 to 1774 and a prominent
On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke American Indians, boarded the ships of British tea merchants and dumped an estimated £10,000 worth of tea on board into the harbor. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Year 1773 ( MDCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Samuel Adams ( – October 2 1803 was an American Statesman, Politician, Writer and political philosopher, brewer Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States This event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore. The Boston Tea Party was an act of Direct action protest by the American colonists against the British Government in which they destroyed many
Intolerable Acts 1774
The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. The Intolerable Acts or the Coercive Acts are names used to describe a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 relating to Britain's colonies They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. [12] The first was the Massachusetts Government Act, which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The Massachusetts Government Act (citation 14 Geo III c 45 was passed by the Parliament of Great Britain and became a law on May 20, 1774. The second Act, the Administration of Justice Act, ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The Administration of Justice Act, or Act for the Impartial Administration of Justice, also popularly called the Murdering Act or Murder Act, an Act The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party (the British never received such a payment). The Boston Port Act is an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (citation 14 Geo The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed governors to house British troops in unoccupied buildings. Quartering Act is the name of at least two acts of the Parliament of Great Britain. The First Continental Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form militias, and called for Massachusetts to form a Patriot government. The First Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from twelve of the thirteen British North American colonies that met on September 5 1774 in The Suffolk Resolves was a declaration made in September 1774 by the leaders of Suffolk County Massachusetts, of which Boston is the major city
American political opposition
American political opposition was initially through the colonial assemblies such as the Stamp Act Congress, which included representatives from all thirteen colonies. The Stamp Act Congress was a meeting in the building that would become Federal Hall in New York City in October of 1765 consisting of delegates from 9 of the 13 colonies In 1765, the Sons of Liberty were formed which used public demonstrations, violence and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. The Sons of Liberty was a Secret organization of American Patriots which originated in the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution. In late 1772, after the Gaspée Affair, Samuel Adams set about creating new Committees of Correspondence, which linked Patriots in all thirteen colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. The Gaspée Affair was a significant event in the American Revolution. The committees of correspondence were bodies organized by the local governments of the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution for the purposes of coordinating In early 1773 Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served. [13]
In 1774, the Continental Congress was formed to serve as a provisional national government. The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the In response to the Massachusetts Government Act, Massachusetts Bay and then other colonies formed provisional governments called Provincial Congresses. The Massachusetts Government Act (citation 14 Geo III c 45 was passed by the Parliament of Great Britain and became a law on May 20, 1774. " Provincial Congress " can refer to one of several extra-legal legislative bodies established in some of the Thirteen Colonies early in the American Revolution Committees of Safety were created in each colony for the enforcement of the resolutions of the Committees of Correspondence and the Continental Congress.
The people of Worcester set up an armed picket line in front of the local courthouse and refused to allow British magistrates to enter. Worcester (ˈwʊstɚ is a City in the state of Massachusetts in the United States of America. Similar events soon occurred all across the colony. British troops were sent from England, but by the time they arrived, the entire colony of Massachusetts, with the exception of the heavily garrisoned city of Boston, had thrown off British control of local affairs.
Factions: Patriots, Loyalists and Neutrals
Patriots - The Revolutionaries
At the time, revolutionaries were called 'Patriots', 'Whigs', 'Congress-men', or 'Americans'. This article concerns Patriots in the American Revolution. For other uses see Patriot (disambiguation. They included a full range of social and economic classes, but a unanimity regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans. After the war, Patriots such as George Washington, James Madison, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay were deeply devoted to republicanism while also eager to build a rich and powerful nation, while Patriots such as Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson represented democratic impulses and the agrarian plantation element that wanted a localized society with greater political equality. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. John Jay (December 12 1745 – May 17 1829 was an American Politician, Statesman, revolutionary, Diplomat, a Supreme Court Patrick Henry ( May 29, 1736 June 6, 1799) was a prominent figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for his " Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence
The word "patriot" is used in this context simply to mean a person in the colonies who sided with the American revolution. Calling the revolutionaries "patriots" is a long standing historical convention, and was done at the time. It is not meant to express bias in favor of either side.
Loyalists and neutrals
While there is no way of knowing the actual numbers, historians have estimated that about 15-20% of the population remained loyal to the British Crown; these were known at the time as 'Loyalists', 'Tories', or 'King's men'. This article concerns Loyalists in the American Revolution. For information on the role of those Loyalists in Canadian history after their emigration see United Empire Perhaps 40-45% were known as Rebels or Patriots depending on whose side one was on and the others remained neutral. [14] Loyalists were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Anglican church, and included many established merchants with business connections across the Empire, for example, Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. However; this was America's first civil war and like most civil wars it divided families, such as the Franklins. William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and Governor of New Jersey remained Loyal to the Crown throughout the war and never spoke to his father again. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers in the back country; among the more striking examples of this, see Flora MacDonald. Flora MacDonald ( Gaelic: Fionnghal NicDhòmhnaill) (1722 &ndash March 4, 1790) Jacobite heroine was the daughter of Ranald [15]
There are notable examples of Loyalists who were not high-born, however, and it seems unlikely that their numbers are included in estimates of the number of Loyalists. Notable among these were Native Americans, who mostly rejected American pleas that they remain neutral. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States Most groups aligned themselves with the loyalists. There were also incentives provided by both sides that helped to secure the affiliations of regional peoples and leaders, and the tribes that depended most heavily upon colonial trade tended to side with the revolutionaries, though political factors were important as well. The most prominent Native American leader siding with the Loyalists was Joseph Brant of the Mohawk nation, who led frontier raids on isolated settlements in Pennsylvania and New York until an American army under John Sullivan secured New York in 1779, forcing all the Loyalist Indians permanently into Canada. Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant ( c 1743 &ndash 24 November 1807) was a Mohawk leader and British military officer during Mohawk ( Kanienkeh, Kanienkehaka or Kanien’Kahake, meaning "People of the Flint" are an indigenous people of North America For other men with the same name see John Sullivan (disambiguation. [16]
Another poorly-documented group that joined the Loyalist cause were African-American slaves, who were actively recruited into the British forces in return for manumission, protection for their families, and the (often broken) promise of land grants. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services Manumission is the act of freeing a slave, done at the will of the owner Following the war, many of these "Black Loyalists" settled in Nova Scotia, Upper and Lower Canada, and other parts of the British Empire, where the descendants of some remain today. A Black Loyalist or African American Loyalist was a formerly enslaved African American or Free Negro who escaped to the British during the Nova Scotia (ˌnəʊvəˈskəʊʃə ( Latin for New Scotland; Alba Nuadh Nouvelle-Écosse is a Canadian province located on Canada 's The Province of Upper Canada (French Province du Haut-Canada) was a British colony located in what is now the southern portion of the Province of Ontario The Province of Lower Canada (French Province du Bas-Canada) was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the [17]
A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile. However, the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania, were the most important group that was outspoken for neutrality. As patriots declared independence, the Quakers, who continued to do business with the British, were attacked as supporters of British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications" critical of the revolutionary cause. [18]
After the war, the great majority of Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some, such as Samuel Seabury, became prominent American leaders. The Right Reverend Samuel Seabury ( November 30, 1729 &ndash February 25, 1796) was the first American Episcopal 62,000 Loyalists (of the total estimated number of 450-500,000) relocated to Canada (42,000 according to the Canadian book on Loyalists, True Blue), Britain (7,000) or to Florida ([number missing]) or the West Indies (13,000), making it one of the largest mass migrations in history. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting This made up approximately 2% of the total population of the colonies. When the Loyalists left the South in 1783, they took thousands of their slaves with them to the British West Indies,[19] where their descendants would become free men 26 years earlier than their United States counterparts. The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive
Class differences among the Patriots
Historians, such as J. Franklin Jameson in the early 20th century, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence that there was a class war inside the revolution. John Franklin Jameson ( September 19, 1859 – September 28, 1937) was an American historian author and journal editor who played In the last 50 years, historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', with the richer and better educated more likely to become officers in the Army. Ideological demands always came first: the Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British oppression and taxation and, above all, reasserting what they considered to be their rights. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the patriot cause as well, demanding more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania and less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions" it proposed. Common Sense was a Pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. It was first published anonymously on January 10, 1776, during the American [20]
Women
All types of women contributed to the American Revolution in multiple ways. Like men, women participated on both sides of the war. Among women, Anglo-Americans, African Americans, and Native Americans also divided between the Patriot and Loyalist causes. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States
While formal Revolutionary politics did not include women, ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Whig women confronted a war that permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. This article concerns Patriots in the American Revolution. For other uses see Patriot (disambiguation. Patriot women participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and tending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and fighting disguised as men. Above all, they continued the agricultural work at home to feed the armies and their families.
The boycott of British goods involved the willing participation of American women; the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to spinning and weaving—skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts, wove 20,522 yards (18,765 m) of cloth. Middletown Massachusetts may refer to Places Middleton Massachusetts in Essex County Tisbury Massachusetts, known as [21]
A crisis of political loyalties could also disrupt the fabric of colonial America women’s social worlds: whether a man did or did not renounce his allegiance to the king could dissolve ties of class, family, and friendship, isolating women from former connections. A woman’s loyalty to her husband, once a private commitment, could become a political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to Great Britain. The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800
African Americans, both men and women, understood Revolutionary rhetoric as promising freedom and equality. These hopes were not realized. Although both British and American governments made promises of freedom for service throughout the war and many slaves attempted to better their lives by fighting in or assisting the armies, the war ultimately brought few changes for African American women both slave and free. After the Revolution, gradual abolition occurred in the North, but slavery expanded in the South and racial prejudice was near universal in the new nation.
For Native Americans, the American Revolution was not a war of patriotism or independence. Patriotism is commonly defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising Many Native Americans wished to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict, but most were forced to take sides. During the war, Native American towns were often among the first to be attacked by patriot militias, sometimes without regard to which side the inhabitants espoused. The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service One of the most fundamental effects of the war on Native American women was the disruption of home, family, and agricultural life.
Slaves and slavery
In the 1770s there were thousands of slaves held in England worth, in today’s money $110,000,000[22] and Great Britain “still led the world in its dominance of the African slave trade. Somersett's Case ( R v Knowles ex parte Somersett) is a famous judgment of the English Court of King's Bench in 1772 which held that Slavery ”[23] In 1772 a court case was heard in London concerning James Somerset - a runaway slave whose Virginian master was trying to recover him through the courts. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. James Somerset or Somersett was a young African American slave who was purchased by Charles Stuart in Virginia in 1749 The Colony of Virginia (also known frequently as the Virginia Colony and occasionally as the Dominion and Colony of Virginia) was the English colony [24] Prior to the publicty surrounding this case, the British thought of slavery “as existing only on the other side of the Atlantic. ”[25] The ruling by Lord Chief Justice Mansfield, confirming a previous earlier ruling, was that slavery had never existed as an institution under British Law and therefore Somerset was free. William Murray 1st Earl of Mansfield PC ( 2 March 1705 &ndash 20 March 1793) was a British Judge and Politician [26] [27] Mansfield tried to downplay the significance of the case, but its underlying result was to effectively ban slavery in Great Britain, meaning any slave who went there was free. [28] When word of the decision reached the American colonies, antislavery protests occurred in Massachusetts and some slaves, according to a newspaper report, attempted to stow away on ship to England where they believed they would be free. [29]
During the Revolution, efforts were made by the British to turn slavery against the Americans, but historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves:
But England greatly feared the effects of any such move on its own West Indies, where Americans had already aroused alarm over a possible threat to incite slave insurrections. The British elites also understood that an all-out attack on one form of property could easily lead to an assault on all boundaries of privilege and social order, as envisioned by radical religious sects in Britain’s seventeenth-century civil wars. ”[30]
Davis further wrote that “Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slaveholding Loyalists and wealth Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure. ”[31]
The colonists did subsequently accused the British of encouraging slave revolts. [32]
American advocates of independence were commonly lampooned in Britain for their hypocritical calls for human rights, while many of their leaders were slave-holders. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Samuel Johnson observed "how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the [slave] drivers of the negroes?"[33] Benjamin Franklin countered by criticising the British self-congratulation about "the freeing of one negro" (Somersert) while they continued to permit the Slave Trade. Samuel Johnson (often referred to as Dr Johnson) (18 September Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history [34] [35]
Creating new state constitutions
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of most of the territory and population; the Loyalists were powerless. The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775 on Breed's Hill, as part of the Siege of Boston during the American Revolutionary In all thirteen colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving British governors, agents and supporters from their homes. They had elected conventions and "legislatures" that existed outside of any legal framework; new constitutions were used in each state to supersede royal charters. They declared they were states now, not colonies. [36]
On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Events 1477 - Battle of Nancy: Charles the Bold is killed and Burgundy becomes part of France. Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. Rhode Island ( officially named the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. A Royal Charter is a Charter granted by the Sovereign on the advice of the Privy council to legitimize an incorporated body such as a city company [37]
The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York and Massachusetts, the results were constitutions that featured:
- Substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications);[36]
- Bicameral legislatures, with the upper house as a check on the lower;
- Strong governors, with veto power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority;
- Few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government;
- The continuation of state-established religion. Delaware ( is a state located on the Atlantic Coast in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government An established church is a church officially sanctioned and supported by the government of a country e
In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power—especially Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire—the resulting constitutions embodied
- universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey enfranchised some property owning widows, a step that it retracted 25 years later);
Dr. Benjamin Rush, 1783 - strong, unicameral legislatures;
- relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority;
- prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts;
Whether conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly. Benjamin Rush ( December 24 1745 &ndash April 19 1813) was a Founding Father of the United States. Unicameralism is the practice of having only one legislative or Parliamentary chamber The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only fourteen years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America. [38]
Fighting begins at Lexington: 1775
- Further information: Shot heard round the world, Boston campaign, Invasion of Canada (1775)
The Battle of Lexington and Concord took place April 19, 1775, when the British sent a force of roughly 700 troops to confiscate arms and arrest revolutionaries in Concord. The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Concord is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, in the United States. [39] They clashed with the local milita, marking the first fighting of the American Revolutionary War. The news aroused the 13 colonies to call out their militias and send troops to besiege Boston. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775 on Breed's Hill, as part of the Siege of Boston during the American Revolutionary Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a While a British victory, it did little to change the overall strategic situation. [40] [41]
The Second Continental Congress convened in 1775, after the war had started. The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met beginning in May 10 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania The Congress created the Continental Army and extended the Olive Branch Petition to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. The American Continental Army was an Army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America The Olive Branch Petition, drafted on July 5, 1775, was a letter to King George III, from members of the Second Continental Congress, which King George III refused to receive it, issuing instead the Proclamation of Rebellion, requiring action against the "traitors. George III (George William Frederick 4 June 1738 George III's long reign was marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdom much of the rest of Europe and places The Proclamation of Rebellion, officially titled A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition, was the response of George III of the United Kingdom to the "
In March 1776, with George Washington as commander, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, withdrawing their garrison to Halifax, Novia Scotia. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the The American Continental Army was an Army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America In Suffolk County Massachusetts, March 17 is Evacuation Day, an official holiday commemorating the evacuation of the city of Boston by British Halifax County is a County in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. The revolutionaries were in control of goverments throughout the 13 colonies and were ready to declare independence. While there still were many Loyalists, they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled. [42]
Declaration of Independence, 1776
On January 10, 1776, Thomas Paine published a political pamphlet entitled Common Sense arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was republicanism and independence from Great Britain. Common Sense was a Pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. It was first published anonymously on January 10, 1776, during the American The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Common Sense was a Pamphlet written by Thomas Paine. It was first published anonymously on January 10, 1776, during the American [43] In the ensuing months, before the United States as a political unit declared its independence, several states individually declared their independence. Virginia, for instance, declared its independence from Great Britain on May 15.
On July 2, 1776, Congress declared the independence of the United States; two days later, on July 4, it adopted the Declaration of Independence, which date is now celebrated as the US independence day. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then Although the bulk of delegates signed the Declaration on that date, signing continued over the next several months because many members weren't immediately available. The war began in April 1775, while the declaration was issued in July 1776. Until this point, the colonies had sought favorable peace terms; now all the states called for independence. [44] Except for a failed attempt on September 11, 1776 by the British after the Battle of Long Island to secure, from a Congressional delegation on Staten Island including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, a revocation of the Declaration of Independence, there would be no negotiations until 1783. Background On March 17 1776 the British fleet retreated to Halifax Nova Scotia to refit after the end of the year-long Siege of Boston. Background On March 17 1776 the British fleet retreated to Halifax Nova Scotia to refit after the end of the year-long Siege of Boston. Staten Island (ˌstætənˈaɪlənd is a borough of New York City situated primarily on the island of the same name John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America.
The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly known as the Articles of Confederation, formed the first governing document of the United States of America, combining the colonies into a loose confederation of sovereign states. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, also the Articles of Confederation was the governing Constitution of the alliance of thirteen independent and The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution The Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles in November 1777, though they were not formally ratified until March 1, 1781. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1781 ( MDCCLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common On that date the Continental Congress was dissolved and the new government of the United States in Congress Assembled was formed. [45][46]
War
British return: 1776-1777
- Further information: New York and New Jersey campaign, Saratoga campaign, Philadelphia campaign
The British returned in force in August 1776, landing in New York and engaging the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island in one of the largest engagements of the war. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe British strategy As the year's campaigns were winding down in the autumn of 1776 the British began to plan operations for the next year The Philadelphia campaign (1777&ndash1778 was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War. Other names In Arabic, the month is called أغسطسص ʾUġusṭuṣ or آب ʾĀb; usage varies from place to place and New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Background On March 17 1776 the British fleet retreated to Halifax Nova Scotia to refit after the end of the year-long Siege of Boston. They eventually seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington. The City of New York The British made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until 1783, when they relinquished it under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, and approved by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784, formally Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city the destination for Loyalist refugees, and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network. Intelligences in the American Revolutionary War was essentially monitored and sanctioned by the Continental Congress to provide Military intelligence to the [47][48] The British also took New Jersey, but in a surprise attack, Washington crossed the Delaware into New Jersey and defeated British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining New Jersey. The Delaware River is a river on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Background In the time before the battle American morale was low Background In the night after the Second Battle of Trenton, General Washington led the roughly 6000 man main body of his army stealthily away from Lieutenant While the victories were relatively minor, they gave an important boost to pro-independence supporters at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic images of the war.
In 1777, as part of a grand strategy to end the war, the British launched two uncoordinated attacks. The army based in New York City defeated Washington and captured the rebel capital at Philadelphia. Simultaneously a second army invaded from Canada with the goal of cutting off New England. History See also History of New England New England's earliest inhabitants were Algonquian -speaking Native Americans including the It was trapped and captured the Battle of Saratoga, New York, in October 1777. Background See also Saratoga campaign The British plan and Howe's blunder The original conception of the campaign had been for Burgoyne with some eight The British army had agreed to surrender only on condition of being a Convention Army with repatriation to Britain. The Convention Army ( 1777 &ndash 1783) was an army of British and allied troops captured after the Battles of Saratoga in the American Revolutionary [49] Realizing that their cause would be adversely effected if the captured troops could be switched with other British troops who would be brought out to America, Congress repudiated these terms, and imprisoned them instead. [50] This was poorly received in Britain, as a violation of the rules of war, and contributed further to the drift apart.
American alliances after 1778
- Further information: France in the American Revolutionary War, Spain in the American Revolutionary War
Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war, as Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to officially recognise the declaration of independence. France, despite its financial difficulties used the occasion of the American Revolutionary War (1776–1781 to weaken its arch-rival in European and world Spain entered the American Revolutionary War as an ally of France in June 1779 a renewal of the Bourbon Family Compact. William Pitt spoke out in parliament for Britain to make peace in America, and unite against France[51], while other British politicians who had previously supported independence now turned against the American rebels for allying with the old mutual enemy. William Pitt 1st Earl of Chatham PC (15 November 1708 &ndash 11 May 1778 was a British Whig Statesman who achieved his greatest fame as
The French alliance was not a universally popular move in America. It angered Loyalists, while some members in the Continental Army had fought the French in the French and Indian War, and many still harboured resentment. The American Continental Army was an Army formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America The French and Indian War (1754&ndash1763 was the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War. The French alliance has been acknowledged as a factor in the defection of Benedict Arnold to the British. Benedict Arnold V ( – June 14, 1801) was a General during the American Revolutionary War who originally fought for the American Continental Others objected on ideological grounds because France was an absolute monarchy. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything
Later Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch (1780) became allies of the French leaving Britain to fight a global war alone without major allies and trying to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The American theatre thus became only one front in Britain's war. [52] The British were forced to withdraw troops from continental America to reinforce the sugar-producing Caribbean islands, which were considered more valuable. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting
Because of the alliance and the deteriorating military situation, Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander, evacuated Philadelphia to reinforce New York City. General Washington attempted to intercept the retreating column, resulting in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. Prelude In May of 1778 The British commander General Clinton in Philadelphia faced with a war with France decided it was prudent to protect New York City and Florida After an inconclusive engagement, the British successfully retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theatre. [52]
The British move South, 1778-1783
- Further information: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War, Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War
The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign the southern colonies. The Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War was the central area of operations in the second half of the American Revolutionary War American war 1775–1778 Before France entered the conflict in 1778 the naval war consisted of many small operations With less regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the Southern Strategy as a more viable plan, as the south was perceived as being more strongly Loyalist, with a large population of poorer recent immigrants as well as large numbers of African Americans, both groups who tended to favour them. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa
In late December 1778, the British had captured Savannah. Savannah is a city located in the state of Georgia, United States. In 1780 they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston as well. Background From 1777 to 1778, the British had considerable success in the southern colonies namely in the Colony of Georgia with the Siege of A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that goverment forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The Armies & Deployments Gates formed up first on the field He had around 3700 troops of which around only 1500 of them were regular troops The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Despite the disaster at Saratoga, they once again appeared to have gained the upper hand. There was even a consideration of ten state independence (with the three southernmost colonies remaing British).
Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state Behind them much of the territory they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerilla war, fought predominantly fought between bands of Loyalist and rebel Americans, which negated many of the gains the British had previously made. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc
Yorktown 1781
The southern British army marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet which would take them back to New York. Yorktown is a Census-designated place (CDP in York County, Virginia, United States. [53] When that fleet was defeated by a French fleet, however, they became trapped in Yorktown. Background After a strategically indecisive campaign in the southern states, in the summer of 1781 British troops under Lord Cornwallis headed to the coast at Yorktown [54] In October 1781 under a combined siege by the French and Continental armies, the British under the command of General Cornwallis, surrendered. [55]
News of the defeat effectively ended major offensive operations in America. [56] Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathised with the rebels, but now it reached a new low. [57] Althrough the British military position in America was still strong and they held several major cities, there was no mood for further campaigns against the colonists.
Although King George III personally wanted to fight on, his supporters lost control of Parliament, and no further major land offensives were launched in the American Theatre. [52] A final naval battle was fought by Captain John Barry and his crew of the Alliance as three British warships led by the HMS Sybil tried to take the payroll of the Continental Army on March 10, 1783 off the coast of Cape Canaveral. John Barry (1745 – 13 September, 1803) was an officer in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War and later in Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Year 1783 ( MDCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or Cape Canaveral from the Spanish Cabo Cañaveral, is a headland in Brevard County Florida, United States, near the center of that
Prisoners
- Further information: Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War
In August 1775, the King declared Americans in arms against royal authority to be traitors to the Crown. During the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 - 1783) the management and treatment of Prisoners of war (POW was very different from the The Proclamation of Rebellion, officially titled A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition, was the response of George III of the United Kingdom to the In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation. Throughout the Commonwealth realms The Crown is an abstract metonymic concept which represents the legal authority for the existence of any government The British government at first started treating captured rebel combatants as common criminals and preparations were made to bring them to trial for treason. American Secretary Lord Germain and First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Sandwich were especially eager to do so, with a particular emphasis on those who had previously served in British units (and thereby sworn an oath of alliegance to the crown). George Germain 1st Viscount Sackville PC ( 26 January 1716 &ndash 26 August 1785) also known previously first as Lord George John Montagu 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS ( 3 November 1718 &ndash 30 April 1792) succeeded his grandfather
Many of the prisoners taken by the British at Bunker Hill apparently expected to be hanged. The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775 on Breed's Hill, as part of the Siege of Boston during the American Revolutionary But the government declined to take the next step: treason trials and executions. There were tens of thousands of Loyalists under American control who would have been at risk for treason trials of their own (by the Americans) , and the British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists. After the surrender at Saratoga in 1777, there were thousands of British prisoners in American hands who were effectively hostages. Background See also Saratoga campaign The British plan and Howe's blunder The original conception of the campaign had been for Burgoyne with some eight
Therefore no American prisoners were put on trial for treason, and although most were badly treated and many died nonetheless,[58][59] eventually they were technically accorded the rights of belligerents. The Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument is erected in Fort Greene Park, in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, consisting of a -wide Granite In 1782, by act of Parliament, they were officially recognized as prisoners of war rather than traitors. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners. [60]
Peace treaty
The peace treaty with Britain, known as the Treaty of Paris, gave the U. The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, and approved by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784, formally S. all land east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, though not including Florida (On September 3, 1783, Britain entered into a separate agreement with Spain under which Britain ceded Florida back to Spain. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 1783 ( MDCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or ). The Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. Issues regarding boundaries and debts were not resolved until the Jay Treaty of 1795. The Jay Treaty, also known as the Treaty of London of 1794, between the United States and Great Britain averted war solved many issues left over from [61]
Aftermath of war
Interpretations
Interpretations about the effect of the Revolution vary. At one end of the spectrum is the older view that the American Revolution was not "revolutionary" at all, that it did not radically transform colonial society but simply replaced a distant government with a local one. [62] A more recent view pioneered by historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event that produced deep changes and had a profound impact on world affairs, based on an increasing belief in the principles of republicanism, such as peoples' natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people. Bernard Bailyn (b 1922 Hartford Connecticut) is an American historian author and professor specializing in U Gordon S Wood (born November 27, 1933) is Alva O Way University Professor and Professor of History at Brown University and the recipient of the 1993 Edmund Sears Morgan (b January 17, 1916, in Minneapolis) an eminent authority on early American history, and is a Professor of History Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty [63]
Loyalist expatriation
For roughly five percent of the inhabitants of the United States, defeat was followed by exile. Approximately 100,000 United Empire Loyalists left the newly founded republic, most settling in the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the Province of Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The name United Empire Loyalists is a honorific name which has been given after the fact to those American Loyalists who resettled in British North America and other The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years' War. The Eastern Townships ( French: Cantons de l'Est) is a historical region in south-eastern Quebec, lying between the former seigneuries south of Prince Edward Island (ˌprɪns ˌɛdwɚd ˈaɪlɨnd ( PEI or P The new colonies of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and New Brunswick were created by Britain for their benefit. Ontario (ɒnˈtɛrioʊ is a province located in the central part of Canada, the largest by population and second largest after Quebec New Brunswick ( French: Nouveau-Brunswick /nuvobʁɔnzwik/ is one of Canada 's three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally [64]
Worldwide influence
The Revolution began in states without inherited rank or position, despite the unsuccessful efforts of the Society of the Cincinnati to create such a division. The Society of the Cincinnati is a historic organization with branches in the United States and France founded in 1783 to preserve the ideals and fellowship of the After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics, such as those of Matthew Lyon, became possible, despite the opposition and dismay of the Federalist Party. Matthew Lyon ( July 14, 1749 - August 1, 1822) (father of Chittenden Lyon and great-grandfather of William Peters Hepburn The Federalist Party (or Federal Party) was an American political party in the period 1792 to 1816 with remnants lasting into the 1820s [65] The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Thus came the widespread assertion of liberty, individual rights, equality and hostility toward corruption which would prove core values of republicanism to Americans. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations. [66]
Morocco was the first country to recognize the independence of the United States of America from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1777. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The two countries signed the Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship ten years later. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship was signed by Thomas Jefferson and the Moroccan king Muhammad III in 1786 Friesland, one of the seven United Provinces of the Dutch Republic, was the next to recognize American independence (on February 26, 1782, followed by the Staten-Generaal of the Dutch Republic on April 19, 1782). Friesland ( West Frisian: Fryslân, Dutch Friesland) is a province in the north of the Netherlands and part of the bigger region known "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed Year 1782 ( MDCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 1782 ( MDCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common John Adams became the first US Ambassador in The Hague. John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. [67] The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions that took hold in the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of liberation. " Atlantic Revolutions " is a cover term for a wave of late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century revolutions associated with the Enlightenment. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere Bolívar's War is a term coined by some historians to refer to a series of independence wars in South America from 1811 to 1825 led by General Simón Bolívar. Aftershocks reached Ireland in the 1798 rising, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The Irish Rebellion of 1798 (Éirí Amach 1798 Turn Oot 1798 or 1798 rebellion as it is known locally was an uprising in 1798 lasting several months against the The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands [68]
The Revolution had a strong, immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Many British and Irish Whigs spoke in favor of the American cause. The Whigs (with the Tories) are often described as one of two political parties in England and later the United Kingdom from the late 17th to The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the English Civil War (in the 17th century), was one of the first lessons in overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as Marquis de Lafayette. The Dutch Revolt, Eighty Years' War or the Revolt of the Netherlands (1568—1648 was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Low Countries The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The American Declaration of Independence had some impact on the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining [69][70]
The North American states' new-found independence from the British Empire allowed slavery to continue in the United States until 1865, 32 years after it was banned in all British colonies. It also cost the Native Americans dearly; they had been protected under British rule, but in the newly formed United States, their treaties were torn up, their rights were withdrawn and finally, their lands were taken.
National debt
- See also: United States public debt
The national debt after the American Revolution fell into three categories. The United States total public debt, commonly called the national debt, or U The first was the $11 million owed to foreigners—mostly debts to France during the American Revolution. The second and third—roughly $24 million each—were debts owed by the national and state governments to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the revolutionary forces. Congress agreed that the power and the authority of the new government would pay for the foreign debts. There were also other debts that consisted of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually. A promissory note, also referred to as a note payable in Accounting, is a Contract where one party (the maker or issuer) makes an The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114,000,000, compared to $37 million by the central government. [71] In 1790, Congress combined the state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.
See also
- Founding Fathers of the United States
- Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War
- Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)
- List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
- Battles of the Revolutionary War
- List of plays and films about the American Revolution
Bibliography
Notes
- ^ Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, A Companion to the American Revolution (2000) p. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the A great number of military leaders played a role in the American Revolutionary War. This section of the Timeline of United States history concerns events from 1760 to 1789. This is a list of units of the Continental Army, the national army of the United States during the American Revolutionary War. Major campaigns theaters and expeditions of the war Boston campaign (1774&ndash76 Invasion of Canada (1775 (1775&ndash77 Films television shows musicals and plays interpreting the American Revolution 1776 or The Hessian Renegades (1909 film by D 235
- ^ Wood (1992); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 70
- ^ Charles W. Toth, Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite: The American Revolution & the European Response. (1989) p. 26.
- ^ Greene & Pole (1994) ch 9
- ^ a b Miller (1943)
- ^ Greene & Pole (1994) ch 15
- ^ Greene & Pole (1994) ch 11
- ^ Middlekauff pg. 62.
- ^ Miller, p. 89
- ^ Miller pg. 101
- ^ William S. Carpenter, "Taxation Without Representation" in Dictionary of American History, Volume 7 (1976); Miller (1943)
- ^ Miller (1943) pp 353-76
- ^ Greene & Pole (1994) ch 22-24
- ^ Calhoon, "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, A Companion to the American Revolution (2000) p. 235
- ^ Calhoon, Robert M. "Loyalism and neutrality" in Greene and Pole, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1991)
- ^ Nash, Lawrence (2005) Freedom Bound, in The Beaver: Canada's History Magazine. [1] Feb/Mar. , 2007, by Canada's National History Society. pp. 16-23. ISSN 0005-7517
- ^ Hill (2007), see also blackloyalist.com
- ^ Gottlieb 2005
- ^ Greene & Pole (1994) ch 20-22
- ^ Nash (2005); Resch (2006)
- ^ Berkin (2006); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 41
- ^ Hochschild p. 49
- ^ Davis p. 149
- ^ Schama p. 70-73
- ^ Hochschild p. 49
- ^ Harvey p. 234
- ^ Schama p. 73
- ^ Schama p. 73-76
- ^ Hoschild p. 51
- ^ Davis p. 148
- ^ Davis p. 149
- ^ Schama p. 28-30 p. 78-90
- ^ Weintraub p. 7
- ^ Schama p. 75
- ^ Hochschild p. 50-51
- ^ a b Nevins (1927); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 29
- ^ Nevins (1927)
- ^ Wood (1992)
- ^ Morrisey p. 35
- ^ Harvey p. 208-210
- ^ Urban p. 74
- ^ Miller (1948) p. 87
- ^ Greene and Pole (1994) ch 26.
- ^ Greene and Pole (1994) ch 27.
- ^ Greene and Pole (1994) ch 30;
- ^ Klos, Stanley L. (2004). President Who? Forgotten Founders. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Evisum, Inc. . ISBN 0-9752627-5-0.
- ^ Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. Walker & Company. New York. October 2002. ISBN 0-8027-1374-2
- ^ McCullough, David. 1776. Simon & Schuster. New York. May 24, 2005. ISBN 978-0743226714
- ^ Harvey p. 347-350
- ^ Harvey p. 353
- ^ Weintraub p.
- ^ a b c Mackesy, 1992; Higginbotham (1983)
- ^ Harvey p. 493-95
- ^ Harvey p. 502-06
- ^ Harvey p. 515
- ^ Harvey p. 526-529
- ^ Harvey p. 528
- ^ Onderdonk, Henry. "Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New York. " ISBN 978-0804680752
- ^ Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. "Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship" (American Experience Series, No 8), 1986 (originally printed 1826). ISBN 978-0918222923
- ^ John C. Miller, Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 1948. Page 166.
- ^ Miller (1948), pp 616-48
- ^ Greene, Jack. The American Revolution Section 25. The American Historical Review. Retrieved on 2007-01-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King
- ^ Wood (2003)
- ^ Van Tine (1902)
- ^ Wood, Radicalism, p. 278-9
- ^ Palmer, (1959)
- ^ Frisians first to recognize USA! (After an article by Kerst Huisman, Leeuwarder Courant 29th Dec. 1999). Retrieved on 2006-11-11. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare
- ^ Palmer, (1959); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 53-55
- ^ Palmer, (1959); Greene & Pole (1994) ch 49-52.
- ^ Enlightenment and Human Rights.
- ^ Jensen, The New Nation (1950) p 379
Reference works
- Ian Barnes and Charles Royster. The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution (2000), maps and commentary
- Blanco, Richard. The American Revolution: An Encyclopedia 2 vol (1993), 1850 pages
- Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. (1966); revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1; new expanded edition 2006 ed. by Harold E. Selesky
- Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO 2006) 5 vol; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
- Greene, Jack P. and J. R. Pole, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1994), 845pp; emphasis on political ideas; revised edition (2004) titled A Companion to the American Revolution
- Nash, Lawrence Freedom Bound, in The Beaver: Canada's History Magazine. [2] Feb/Mar. , 2007, by Canada's National History Society. pp. 16-23. ISSN 0005-7517
- Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution (1993); 1500 short biographies
- Resch, John P. , ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005)
Surveys
- Bancroft, George. History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. (1854-78), vol 4-10 online edition
- Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763-1815; A Political History (2000), British textbook
- Harvey, Robert A few bloody noses: The American Revolutionary War (2004)
- Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789 (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project. Comprehensive coverage of military and other aspects of the war.
- Hochschild, Adam. Bury the Chains: The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery (2006)
- Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763-1776. (2004)
- Bernhard Knollenberg, Growth of the American Revolution: 1766-1775 (2003) online edition
- Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. The American Revolution, 1763-1783 (1898), British perspective online edition
- Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775-1783 (1992), British military study online edition
- Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789 (2005). The 1985 version is available online at online edition
- Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783 (1948) online edition
- Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution (1943) online edition
- Morrissey, Brendan. Boston 1775:The Shot Heard Around The World. Osprey (1993)
- Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, The Slaves and the American Revolution (2006)
- Urban, Mark. Generals:Ten British Commanders who shaped the World (2005)
- Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Rebellion in America 1775-83 (2005)
- Wood, Gordon S. The American Revolution: A History (2003), short survey
- Wrong, George M. Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence (1921) online short survey by Canadian scholar
Specialized studies
- Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0-674-44301-2
- Becker, Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study on the History of Political Ideas (1922)online edition
- Samuel Flagg Bemis. The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (1935) online edition
- Berkin, Carol. Revolutionary Mothers: Women in the Struggle for America's Independence (2006)
- Breen, T. H. The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (2005)
- Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978)
- Davis, David Brion. Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery n the New World. (2006)
- Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing (2004), 1775 campaigns; Pulitzer prize
- Greene, Jack, ed. The Reinterpretation of the American Revolution (1968) collection of scholarly essays
- Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (1979)
- McCullough, David. 1776 (2005). ISBN 0-7432-2671-2
- Morris, Richard B. ed. The Era of the American revolution (1939); older scholarly essays
- Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. (2005). ISBN 0-670-03420-7
- Nevins, Allan; The American States during and after the Revolution, 1775-1789 1927. online edition
- Norton, Mary Beth. Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750-1800 (1980)
- Palmer, Robert R. The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800. vol 1 (1959) online edition
- Resch, John Phillips and Walter Sargent, eds. War And Society in the American Revolution: Mobilization And Home Fronts (2006)
- Rothbard, Murray, Conceived in Liberty (2000), Volume III: Advance to Revolution, 1760-1775 and Volume IV: The Revolutionary War, 1775-1784. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Conceived in Liberty, authored by Murray Rothbard, is a 4-volume set covering the complete history of the United States from the pre-colonial period ISBN 0-945466-26-9.
- Shankman, Andrew. Crucible of American Democracy: The Struggle to Fuse Egalitarianism and Capitalism in Jeffersonian Pennsylvania. University Press of Kansas, 2004.
- Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution (1902)
- Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. Daily Life during the American Revolution (2003)
- Wahlke, John C. ed. The Causes of the American Revolution (1967) readings
- Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.
Primary sources
- The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence (2001), Library of America, 880pp
- Commager, Henry Steele and Morris, Richard B. , eds. The Spirit of 'Seventy-Six: The Story of the American Revolution As Told by Participants (1975) (ISBN 0-06-010834-7) short excerpts from hundreds of official and unofficial primary sources
- Humphrey; Carol Sue, ed. The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800 Greenwood Press, 2003
- Morison, Samuel E. ed. Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution (1923). 370 pp online version
- Tansill, Charles C. ed. ; Documents Illustrative of the Formation of the Union of the American States. Govt. Print. Office. (1927). 1124 pages online version
- Martin Kallich and Andrew MacLeish, eds. The American Revolution through British eyes (1962) primary documents
External links
- Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution
- PBS Television Series
- Smithsonian study unit on Revolutionary Money
- http://www.theamericanrevolution.org
- Haldimand Collection Letters regarding the war to important generals. Fully indexed
- The American Revolution
- "Military History of Revolution" essay by Richard Jensen with links to documents, maps, URLs
- American Independence Museum
- Black Loyalist Heritage Society
- Spanish and Latin American contribution to the American Revolution
- American Archives: Documents of the American Revolution at Northern Illinois University Libraries
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