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American Kestrel
Adult male
Adult male
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Falconiformes
Family: Falconidae
Genus: Falco
Species: F. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Least Concern ( LC) is an IUCN category assigned to extant species or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 Species of Birds that include the diurnal birds of prey. The falcons and caracaras are around 60 Species of diurnal birds of prey that comprise the family Falconidae. A falcon (fɔlkən or fælkən is any Species of raptor in the Genus Falco. sparverius
Binomial name
Falco sparverius
Linnaeus, 1758
Synonyms

Cerchneis sparverius
Tinnunculus sparverius

The American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) is a small falcon. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Year 1758 ( MDCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In Scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different Scientific names used for a single Taxon. A falcon (fɔlkən or fælkən is any Species of raptor in the Genus Falco. This bird was (and sometimes still is) colloquially known in North America as the "Sparrow Hawk". This name is misleading because it implies a connection with the Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, which is unrelated; the latter is an accipiter rather than a falcon. The Eurasian Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus) is a small Bird of prey in the family Accipitridae which includes many other diurnal raptors such The genus Accipiter is a group of birds of prey in the family Accipitridae, mostly consisting of birds known as Goshawks and Sparrowhawks Though both are diurnal raptors, they are only distantly related. The order Falconiformes is a group of about 290 Species of Birds that include the diurnal birds of prey.

American Kestrels are widely distributed across the Americas. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Their breeding range extends from central and western Alaska across northern Canada to Nova Scotia, and south throughout North America, into central Mexico, the Baja, and the Caribbean. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Nova Scotia (ˌnəʊvəˈskəʊʃə ( Latin for New Scotland; Alba Nuadh Nouvelle-Écosse is a Canadian province located on Canada 's The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting They are local breeders in Central America and are widely distributed throughout South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a

Most of the birds breeding in Canada and the northern United States migrate south in the winter, although some males stay as year-round residents. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability It is a very rare vagrant to western Europe.

Contents

Description

Male American Kestrel
Male American Kestrel
Female American Kestrel
Female American Kestrel

The American Kestrel is the smallest falcon in North America—about the size of an American Robin. The American Robin, Turdus migratorius, is a migratory Songbird of the thrush family Like all raptors, the American Kestrel is sexually dimorphic, although there is some overlap within the species. Birds of prey are Birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing using their keen senses especially vision The female ranges in length from 23 to 28 centimeters (9-11 inches) with a wingspan of 53–61 centimeters (21–24 inches) and weighs an average of 120 grams (4. 2 ounces). The length of the male varies between 20–25 centimeters (8–10 inches) with a wingspan ranging from 51–56 centimeters (20–22 inches) and weighing an average of 111 grams (3. 9 ounces). These subtle differences are often difficult to discern in the field.

Male American Kestrel upperside pattern
Male American Kestrel upperside pattern

The coloration of the feathers, however, greatly varies between the sexes. Males have blue-grey secondary feathers on their wings, while the undersides are white with black barring. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David The back is rufous in coloration, with barring on the lower half. The belly and flanks are white with black spotting. The tail is also rufous, except for the outer rectrix set, which is white with a black subterminal band.

The back of the female American Kestrel is rufous with dark brown barring. The wings exhibit similar coloration and patterning to the back. The undersides of the females are white with rufous streaking. The tail of the female is noticeably different from the male, being rufous in color with numerous narrow dark brown or black bars. Juveniles exhibit coloration patterns similar to the adults.

In both sexes, the head is white with a bluish-grey top. There are also two narrow, vertical black facial markings on each side of the head; one below the eyes and one on the rear portion of the auriculars. Two black spots (ocelli) can be found on each side of the white or orangish nape. The wings are moderately long, fairly narrow, and taper to a point. While perched, the wingtips are noticeably shorter than the tail tip.

Vocalizations

The American Kestrel has three basic vocalizations - the "klee" or "killy", the "whine", and the "chitter. " The "klee" or "killy" is usually delivered as a rapid series - "killy, killy, killy, killy" when the kestrel is upset or excited. It is used at the apex of the dive display, during fights with other kestrels, and after unsuccessful hunting attempts.

The "whine" may last as long as one to two minutes and may be single or treble. The more intense the situation, the more likely the "whine" will move toward the treble extreme. "Whines" are given during courtship feeding and copulation. Courtship is the traditional dating period before engagement and marriage The treble whine is heard from breeding females and fledged hungry young.

The "chitter" is the most frequent vocalization in male - female interactions. Its volume and duration depends upon the stress or excitement of the situation. The volume of any solid plasma vacuum or theoretical object is how much three- Dimensional space it occupies often quantified numerically It is associated with friendly approaches and bodily contact between the sexes during breeding season. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Occasionally a "chitter" follows a "whine. "

Calling occurs throughout the day. Nestlings at two weeks can produce all three vocalizations. Female kestrels tend to have slightly lower pitched and harsher voices than males.

Systematics

The male Common Kestrel's upperside pattern is typical for true kestrels; compare to American Kestrel above.
The male Common Kestrel's upperside pattern is typical for true kestrels; compare to American Kestrel above. The Common Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus) is a Bird of prey Species belonging to the Kestrel group of the Falcon family

This bird is apparently not a true kestrel. mtDNA cytochrome b sequence analysis (Groombridge et al. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. Cytochrome b/b6 is main subunit of transmembrane cytochrome bc1 and b6f complexes A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule 2002) indicates a Late Miocene split[1] between the ancestors of the American Kestrel, and those of the Common Kestrel and its closest relatives. The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene period and extends from about 23 The Common Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus) is a Bird of prey Species belonging to the Kestrel group of the Falcon family The color pattern with its large areas of brown is reminiscent of kestrels, but the coloration of the head - notably the black ear patch, which is not found in any of the true kestrels - and the male's extensively gray wings are suggestive of a closer relationship with the hobbies, an informal grouping of falcons of usually average size.

Species such as the Merlin and the Aplomado Falcon are proposed as possible close relatives. The Merlin ( Falco columbarius) is a smallish Falcon that breeds in northern North America, Europe and Asia. Indeed, the Merlin is a highly polymorphic bird and although its grey tail and back are distinctive, certain morphs are the only birds that might conceivably be confused with American Kestrels. Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different Phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words the occurrence of more than one Conclusive evidence is lacking, and what can be said at present judging from the fairly noninclusive DNA sequence studies[2] is that the general relationships of the present species seem to lie with a number of rather basal "hobby" lineages, such as the Merlin and Aplomado Falcon mentioned already, or the Red-footed and Amur Falcons - or even the Peregrine Falcon lineage with its large species. A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule In Phylogenetics, a basal Clade is the earliest clade to branch in a larger clade it appears at the base of a cladogram The Red-footed Falcon ( Falco vespertinus) formerly Western Red-footed Falcon, is a Bird of prey. The Amur Falcon ( Falco amurensis) formerly Eastern Red-footed Falcon, is a small raptor of the Falcon family The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a

The American Kestrel is not very closely related to any of these groups, although it might be closer to the Aplomado Falcon (and its presumed close relatives, the Bat and Orange-breasted Falcons) than to any other living species (Wink et al. The Bat Falcon ( Falco rufigularis) is a Falcon that is a resident breeder in tropical Mexico, Central and South America The Orange-breasted Falcon ( Falco deiroleucus) is a Bird of the Falcon family 1998) - an association that is also better supported by biogeography than a close relationship with the exclusively Old World true kestrels. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. It is nonetheless highly distinct in morphology from any of these and, interestingly, has a syrinx similar to the Peregrine and the hierofalcons[3]. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Syrinx ( Greek for Pan pipes) is the name for the vocal organ of birds The hierofalcons (literally "hawk-falcons" are four closely related species of Falcon which make up the Subgenus Hierofalco:

In conclusion, until better evidence is available, it is best considered part of a radiation of falcon lineages that diversified around the North Atlantic at the end of the Miocene. Though several fossils of small falcons arte known from North America at roughly the correct time, the earliest testimony of the American Kestrel lineage is Pleistocene remains of the living species (Brodkorb 1964). The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period

Ecology and behavior

American Kestrel on telephone wire
American Kestrel on telephone wire

American Kestrels are found in a variety of habitats including parks, suburbs, open fields, forest edges and openings, alpine zones, grasslands, marshes, open areas on mountainsides, prairies, plains, deserts with giant cacti, and freeway and highway corridors. A park is a protected area of Land and Water, usually in its natural or semi-natural (landscaped state and set aside for some purpose often to do with human South San Jose (cropjpg||thumb|A suburban development in San Jose California. For the climate of the mountains named the Alps, see Climate of the Alps. Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject Prairie, from the French prairie ("meadow" "grassland" "pasture" refers to an area of land of low topographic relief that historically A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Before adding any more images to this * * page please do carefully consider * * whether they would be mere decoration * * or actually improve

In addition to requiring open space for hunting, American Kestrels seem to need perches for hunting from, cavities for nesting (either natural or man-made), and a sufficient food supply. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade.

The American Kestrel is the only North American falcon to habitually hover with rapid wing beats, keeping its head motionless while scanning the ground for prey. The kestrel commonly perches along fences and powerlines. It glides with flat wings and wingtips curved upward. It occasionally soars in circles with its tail spread and its wings flat.

This falcon species is not long-lived. The oldest banded wild bird was 11 years and seven months old while a captive lived 17 years. A mortality rate average of 57 percent was found. Mortality rate is a measure of the number of Deaths (in general or due to a specific cause in some population scaled to the size of that population per unit time First year mortality rates have declined since 1945 with a decrease in shooting. Major causes of death include collision with traffic, illegal shooting, and predation by other raptors, including the Red-tailed Hawk, Northern Goshawk, Cooper's Hawk, Peregrine Falcon, Barn Owl, and Great Horned Owl. Traffic on Roads may consist of Pedestrians ridden or herded Animals Vehicles Streetcars and other Conveyances either singly The Red-tailed Hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis) is a medium-sized Bird of prey, one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the " The Goshawk ('ɡɔːshɔːk Accipiter gentilis; from OE góshafoc 'goose-hawk' is a medium-large Bird of prey in the family Accipitridae The Cooper's Hawk ( Accipiter cooperii) is a medium-sized Hawk. The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a The city in Russia is spelled Barnaul. The Barn Owl ( Tyto alba) is the most widely distributed species of The Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus, is a large owl native to North and South America

Feeding

American Kestrel on the hunt
American Kestrel on the hunt

In summer, kestrels feed largely on grasshoppers, dragonflies, lizards, mice, and voles. Grasshoppers are Insects of the suborder Caelifera in the order Orthoptera. Anisoptera redirects here For the genus of trees see Anisoptera (tree. Lizards are a large and widespread group of Reptiles of the order Squamata, with nearly 5000 species and ranging across all continents except A mouse (plural mice) is a small Animal that belongs to one A vole is a small Rodent resembling a Mouse but with a stouter body a shorter hairy tail a slightly rounder head and smaller ears and eyes They will also eat other small birds. Wintering birds feed primarily on rodents and birds. Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must The birds characteristically hunt along roadsides from telephone wires, fence posts, trees or other convenient perches when not flying in search of food. When they are flying and looking for food they frequently hover with rapid wingbeats.

Because it feeds on both insects and vertebrates, the American Kestrel maintains fairly high population densities. Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes It has a small breeding home range, from 1. 75 to 2 square miles. Territory size has been estimated at 269 to 321 acres with much larger wintering home ranges.

Several hunting techniques are used by the American Kestrel. It will hover over one spot—when prey is sighted the kestrel will partly fold its wings and drop lower once or several times before striking. When the prey disappears the falcon will glide in a semicircle before turning back into the wind to hover again. It will also soar in circles, or figure eights, using the same stooping tactics as when hovering.

The kestrel commonly hunts from elevated perch sites, waiting for prey to move on the ground. The kestrel bobs its head and pumps its tail just before attacking.

Other prey capture techniques include direct pursuit, landing and flushing prey from the ground (especially for grasshoppers)and then taking them in flight, capturing flying insects from an elevated perch, and nest robbing including the burrows of Bank Swallows and the nests of Cliff Swallows. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described The Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia) is a migratory Passerine Bird in the Swallow family The Cliff Swallow ( Petrochelidon pyrrhonota) is a member of the Passerine Bird family Hirundinidae — the swallows and martins It is also an occasional bat catcher, taking bats from their tree roosts, or striking bats in flight from above or as the bats leave or enter caves. A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter The kestrel will kill and cache food items.

The American Kestrel occasionally robs others of the same species. It has also been known to rob a shrike of its prey. Shrikes are Passerine Birds of the family Laniidae Most shrike species occur in Eurasia and Africa, but two breed in North America Kestrels sometimes harass other hawks, and even Golden Eagles, in flight. The Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos) is one of the best known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere

Reproduction

Male American Kestrel (right), presenting insect prey (locust?) to female
Male American Kestrel (right), presenting insect prey (locust?) to female

American Kestrels form pairs in which the bond is strong, tending toward permanence. Returning migrants commonly re-establish territories held the previous year. In one study, a pair nested in the same tree for six consecutive years. Nesting occurs from late spring to late summer in North America, with incubation underway by the end of May[4]; in tropical South America the birds breed roughly from June onwards through to September or so[5]. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a

Courtship begins shortly after the male establishes a territory. In early courtship, he may give the "dive display", a series of climbs and dives 33 to 66 feet (10 to 20 m) with 3-5 "klee" notes given near the peak of each climb. He may present the female with food during courtship feeding. He may entice her to the nest site by calling. He may "flutter-glide" toward her with quick and shallow wing beats while carrying food and she may also beg for food by flutter-gliding. The female initiates copulation by bowing with her tail in line with her body or slightly raised.

A cavity nester, American Kestrels will use holes in trees, rock cavities and crevices in cliffs, artificial nest boxes, or small spaces in buildings. In Architecture, Construction, Engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following Any man-made The number of suitable breeding cavities limits this species' breeding density. The American Kestrel has adapted well to nest boxes. In one program, nest boxes were fixed to the backs of signs along a freeway thus allowing kestrels to breed in areas formerly devoid of nest sites. Pairs nesting in boxes on poles have much higher nesting success than pairs using boxes on trees. No nest is built inside. In nest boxes sawdust and wood shavings may be a suitable substrate for the eggs. Males and females defend the nest against intruders, with the male maintaining a small core territory and the female defending the nest cavity directly rather the surroundings[5].

Both sexes take turns incubating their eggs, a very rare situation among North American birds of prey where the female usually incubates exclusively. In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. Correspondingly, both sexes develop bare oval patches on each side of their breasts where the warm bare skin can contact the eggs for warming. Eggs hatch 29 to 31 days after being laid. [6] There are from three to seven eggs laid, but four to six are average. [6] The eggs are typically short elliptical in shape, and are white or pinkish-white with an even covering of fine spots and flecks of brown shades, occasionally concentrating as a ring or a cap. They will renest if the first nest fails and have been reported to raise 2 broods per year in some of the southern states.

The young grow very quickly, becoming noisy between day 11 and 14 and assuming adult weight in about 2. 5 weeks. The young fledge in 30 to 31 days. [7] [6]Early fledgling behavior varies. Broods typically stay together for a week or two. Some broods remain close to the nest area for a week or two while others travel throughout the parents' home range. Generally, young do not disperse more than 0. 6 miles (one km) away from the nest area until two to four weeks old. Young disperse as hunting skills develop. Occasionally groups of older juveniles from various broods join together into flocks.

The American Kestrel can be double-brooded, particularly in the southern United States, in areas of abundant small mammals. Replacement clutches can be laid.

Conservation

The American Kestrel's North American population has been estimated at 1. 2 million pairs, with the Central and South American populations being as large. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a It is possible that the clearing of parts of North America for agriculture in the last two hundred years has caused the American kestrel population to increase. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The southeastern race, Falco sparverius paulus, is in serious decline (an 82 percent decrease since the early 1940s in north central Florida) possibly due to habitat loss and loss of nest sites, and has been listed in Florida as "threatened. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the " Threats to the species as a whole include loss of nest sites, pesticide poisoning (dieldrin and DDT, among others), and death through collisions with vehicles as well as shooting. Dieldrin is a Chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long

Use in falconry

American Kestrels (along with the Red-tailed Hawk) are one of two raptors almost universally used by new (apprentice) falconers in the United States. The Red-tailed Hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis) is a medium-sized Bird of prey, one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the " This is largely due to federal laws restricting apprentices to possession of the following raptors

"which must be taken from the wild: an American kestrel (Falco sparverius), a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), a red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), or, in Alaska only, a goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). "[8]

The American Kestrel is generally considered to be a harder bird to care for due to its small size, quick metabolism, and fragile nature (in comparison with the much larger Red-tail and other raptors used in falconry) and requires extensive weight management, often within a couple tenths of a gram. Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans

Falconers typically use American Kestrels to hunt non-game species: insects, sparrows (typically the invasive European variety), starlings, and grackles. Starlings are small to medium-sized Passerine Birds in the family Sturnidae. A Grackle is a gregarious Passerine bird native to North and South America. Male American Kestrels, due to their smaller size, are best suited for sparrows and starlings--though particularly skilled and competent males may occasionally tackle grackles. The larger females are slightly less agile than the males but can take larger prey. Females generally are very slightly less successful in taking sparrows in comparison to males, but are more capable with taking starlings, grackles, and a variety of other small birds. A few females have even been known to take doves, though this is a very rare occurrence.

Hunting Kestrels are at risk of predation by cats, dogs, and other raptors, in particular the Cooper's Hawk. The Cooper's Hawk ( Accipiter cooperii) is a medium-sized Hawk.

Behaviorally, kestrels generally tame down relatively quickly (1-3 weeks) and to a great degree--especially in comparison to other raptors. This tameness helps considerably in day-to-day care, as Kestrels used in falconry should be kept indoors in order to better control weight and protect the bird from predation. The downside of this tameness is the American Kestrel's penchant to begin "screaming" (food begging) - incessant, piercing, loud calls - whenever the falconer appears.

The mortality rate for American Kestrels kept by falconers is estimated to be 7. 4% per year, whereas mortality rates for wild kestrels is estimated to be well over 65%. Most falconers eventually release their kestrels back into the wild once they are of breeding age. There are so few falconers in the United States (estimated at less than 4,000) that any contribution to the estimated millions of wild American kestrels in the United States would be statistically insignificant. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Footnotes

  1. ^ More than 8 to at least 5 mya, roughly Tortonian-Messinian. In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". Tortonian is a Age of the late Miocene epoch that spans the time between 11 Messinian is the last Age of the Miocene epoch. It spans the time between 7 See Groombridge et al. (2002) for a thorough discussion.
  2. ^ Wink et al. (1998), Griffiths (1999), Wink & Saurer-Gürth (2000), Griffiths et al. (2004)
  3. ^ Griffiths (1999), Griffiths et al. (2004). The results of the mtDNA cytochrome b sequence analysis by Wink et al. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. Cytochrome b/b6 is main subunit of transmembrane cytochrome bc1 and b6f complexes A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule (1998) suggesting a basal position of the hierofalcons were in error due to a numt in these species (Wink & Saurer-Gürth 2000)
  4. ^ Henninger (1906)
  5. ^ a b Cisneros-Heredia (2006)
  6. ^ a b c Ehrlich, Paul R. In Phylogenetics, a basal Clade is the earliest clade to branch in a larger clade it appears at the base of a cladogram Numt (pronounced “new might” is an abbreviated term for “nuclear mitochondrial DNA” which describes any transfer or “transposition” of cytoplasmic mitochondrial DNA sequences ; Dobkin, D and Wheye, D. (1988). The Birders Handbook A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds. New York: Simon & Schuster Inc. , 244. ISBN 0-671-65989-8.  
  7. ^ Terres, J. K. (1980). The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 275. ISBN 0-394-46651-9.  
  8. ^ US CFR (2005)

References

External links

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