Amber pendants. The oval pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by 1. A pendant (from Old French) is a hanging object generally attached to a Necklace or an Earring. 3 inches).

Amber is the name for fossil resin or tree sap that is appreciated for its colour and beauty. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. It is used for the manufacture of ornamental objects and jewellery. Although not mineralized, it is sometimes considered a gemstone. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Most of the world's amber is in the range of 30–90 million years old. Semi-fossilized resin or sub-fossil amber is called copal. Copal is a type of Resin produced from plant or tree secretions, often taken from members of the genus Copaifera. It can hold insects or even small mammals. It can also be found in a few different colours; the usual orangey yellow that is associated with amber, green amber and even blue which is highly sought after.

Origin of the term

The English word amber stems from the old Arabic word anbargris or ambergris and refers to an oily, perfumed substance secreted by the sperm whale. Ambergris ( Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, ambergrease, or grey Amber) is a solid waxy flammable substance of a dull gray or blackish Middle English ambre > Old French ambre > Medieval Latin ambra (or ambar). It floats on water and is washed up on the beaches. Due to a confusion of terms (see: Abu Zaid al Hassan from Siraf & Sulaiman the Merchant (851), Silsilat-al-Tawarikh (travels in Asia), it became to be the name for fossil resin or tree sap, which is also found on beaches. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees.

The presence of insects in amber was noticed by the Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia and led him to the (correct) theory that at some point, amber had to be in a liquid state to cover the bodies of insects. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. Hence he gave it the expressive name of suceinum or gum-stone, a name that is still in use today to describe succinic acid as well as succinite, a term given to a particular type of amber by James Dwight Dana (see below under Baltic Amber). Succinic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: butanedioic acid; historically known as spirit of amber) is a Dicarboxylic acid. James Dwight Dana (February 12 1813 &ndash April 14 1895 was an American Geologist, Mineralogist and Zoologist.

The Greek name for amber was ηλεκτρον (Electron) and was connected to the Sun God, one of whose titles was Elector or the Awakener. ^[1] It is discussed by Theophrastus, possibly the first ever mention of the material, and in the 4th century BC. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic The modern term electron was coined in 1891 by the Irish physicist George Stoney, using the Greek word for amber (and which was then translated as electrum) because of its electrostatic properties and whilst analyzing elementary charge for the first time. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J George Johnstone Stoney ( February 15, 1826 &ndash July 5, 1911) was an Anglo-Irish Physicist most famous for introducing The ending -on, common for all subatomic particles, was used in analogy to the word ion. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge ^[2][3]

Heating amber will soften it and eventually it will burn, which is why in Germanic languages the word for amber is a literal translation of burn-Stone (In German it is Bernstein, in Dutch it is barnsteen etc. The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. ). Heated below 200°C, amber suffers decomposition, yielding an "oil of amber", and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber pitch"; when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil this forms "amber varnish" or "amber lac". Turpentine (also called spirit of turpentine oil of turpentine wood turpentine gum turpentine is a fluid obtained by the Distillation of Resin obtained from trees Linseed oil, also known as flax seed oil or simply flax oil, is a clear to yellowish Drying oil derived from the dried ripe seeds of the Flax

A mosquito and a fly in this Baltic amber necklace are between 40 and 60 million years old

Chemistry of amber

Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs True flies are Insects of the Order Diptera ( Greek: di = two and pteron = wing possessing a single pair of The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Heterogeneous is an adjective used to describe an object or system consisting of multiple items having a large number of structural variations Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl Bitumen is a mixture of organic Liquids that are highly Viscous, black sticky entirely soluble in Carbon disulfide, and composed primarily Amber is a macromolecule by free radical polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, communic acid, cummunol and biformene. The term macromolecule by definition implies "large Molecule " Radical polymerization is a type of Polymerization in which the Reactive center of a polymer chain consists of a radical. Labdane is a natural bicyclic Diterpene. It forms the structural core for a wide variety of Natural products collectively known as labdanes or ^[4] These labdanes are diterpenes (C₂₀H₃₂) and trienes which means that the organic skeleton has three alkene groups available for polymerization. Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such In Organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated Chemical compound containing at least one Carbon In Polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting Monomer Molecules together in a Chemical reaction to form three-dimensional networks As amber matures over the years, more polymerization will take place as well as isomerization reactions, crosslinking and cyclization. In Chemistry isomerisation is the process by which one Molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms but the atoms are rearranged Cross-links are bonds that link one Polymer chain to another They can be Covalent bonds or Ionic bonds "Polymer chains" can refer The average composition of amber leads to the general formula C₁₀H₁₆O. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the

Amber should be distinguished from copal. Molecular polymerisation caused by pressure and heat transforms the resin first into copal and then over time through the evaporation of turpenes it is transformed into amber.

Baltic amber is distinguished from the various other ambers from around the world, by the presence within it of succinic acid, hence Baltic amber is otherwise known as succinite.

Amber in geology

The oldest amber originates from the Upper Carboniferous period approximately 345 million years ago. The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 The oldest known amber containing insects comes from the Lower Cretaceous, approximately 146 million years ago). The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of

Commercially most important are the deposits of Baltic and Dominican amber. They both are of tertiary age (40-50 Ma respectively 25-40 Ma). ^[5]

A bee and a leaf inside amber

Baltic amber or succinite (historically documented as Prussian amber) is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic sand, known as blue earth, occurring in the Lower Oligocene strata of Sambia in Kaliningrad Oblast, where it is now systematically mined. The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene period and extends from about 33 Sambia (Земландский полуостров Zemlandsky poluostrov) or Samland ( is a Peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Kaliningrad Oblast (Калинингра́дская о́бласть Kaliningradskaya oblast; informally called Yantarny kray (ru Янта́рный край meaning ^[6] It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier Tertiary deposits (Eocene); and it occurs also as a derivative mineral in later formations, such as the drift. The chuprichondira geological time interval covers roughly the time span between the demise of the non- avian Dinosaurs and beginning of the most recent Ice Age, approximately The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern Asia and the southern part of North America. Heinrich Göppert named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests Pinites succiniter, but as the wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called Pinus succinifera. Johann Heinrich Robert Göppert ( July 25, 1800 - May 18, 1884) was a German Botanist and Paleontologist. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora.

Dominican amber is considered retinite, since it has no succinic acid. There are three main sites in the Dominican Republic: La Cordillera Septentrional, in the north, Bayaguana and Sabana, in the east. In the northern area, the amber-bearing unit is formed of clastic rocks, sandstone accumulated in a deltaic or even deep-water environment. The oldest, and hardest of this amber comes from the mountain region north of Santiago area, from the mines at La Cumbre, La Toca, Palo Quemado, La Bucara, and Los Cacaos mining sites in the Cordillera Septentrional not far from Santiago. Amber in these mountains is tightly embedded in a lignite layer of sandstone.

There is also amber in the south-eastern Bayaguana/Sabana area. It is softer, sometimes brittle and suffers oxidation after being taken from the mines, therefore less expensive. There is also copal found with only an age of 15-17 million years. In the eastern area, the amber is found in a sediment formation of organic-rich laminated sand, sandy clay, intercalated lignite as well as some solated beds of gravel and calcarenite.

Both, Baltic and Dominican amber, are rich sources of fossils and give much information about life in the ancient forests. ^[7]

Amber from the Middle Cretaceous is known from Ellsworth County, Kansas. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of Ellsworth County (county code EW) is a county located in Central Kansas, in the Central United States. This approximately 100 million year old amber has inclusions of bacteria and amoebae. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Amoeboids are Unicellular lifeforms that mainly consist of Contractile vacuoles, a nucleus, and cytoplasm as their basic structure They are morphologically very close to Leptothrix, and the modern genera Pontigulasia and Nebela. Morphological stasis is considered to be confirmed. ^[8]

Amber inclusions

An ant trapped in Dominican amber.

Insect trapped in amber. The amber piece is 10 mm (0. 4 inches) long. In the enlarged picture, the insect's antennae are easily seen.

The resin contains, in addition to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, remains of insects, spiders, annelids, frogs,^[9] crustaceans and other small organisms which were trapped by the sticky surface and became enveloped while the exudation was fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of chitin. Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine Even hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood frequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvelous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. It is thought that, in addition to exuding onto the surface of the tree, amber resin also originally flowed into hollow cavities or cracks within trees, thereby leading to the development of large lumps of amber of irregular form. ^[10] The abnormal development of resin has been called succinosis. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called firniss. Enclosures of pyrites may give a bluish colour to amber. The so-called black amber is only a kind of jet. Jet is a geological material and is considered to be a minor gemstone Bony amber owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles in the interior of the resin.

Not all amber is translucent, becoming transparent when the surfaces are polished, thus revealing inclusions. The technique of inspecting darkly clouded and even opaque amber for inclusions, through bombarding it with high-energy, high-contrast, high-resolution x-rays, is being developed at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. ESRF redirects here for the medical condition see End stage renal failure The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility is a joint research facility ^[11] Nearly 360 fossil invertebrates have been discovered from opaque amber found at Charentes, France: primitive wasps, flies, ants and spiders, particularly those measuring just a few millimeters. Charente ( Saintongeais: Chérente, Occitan: T'Charanto) is a department in western France named after the Charente Three-dimensional images of the trapped organisms are built up through microtomography, showing detail on the scales of micrometres. Microtomography, like Tomography, uses x-rays to create cross-sections of a 3D-object that later can be used to recreate A micrometre ( American spelling: micrometer; symbol µm) is one millionth of a Metre, or equivalently one thousandth of a Millimetre An enlarged plastic three-dimensional model can be obtained of an organism that has remained embedded in the amber, suggesting alternative means of cataloguing new species trapped in amber.

Amber locations

Baltic amber

Baltic amber has a very wide distribution, extending over a large part of northern Europe and occurring as far east as the Urals. Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye

Baltic amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the proportion varying from about 3% to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or bony varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, hence the name succinite proposed by Professor James Dwight Dana, and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the Prussian amber. James Dwight Dana (February 12 1813 &ndash April 14 1895 was an American Geologist, Mineralogist and Zoologist. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1. 05 to 1. 10. An effective tool for Baltic amber analysis is IR spectroscopy. Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy is the subset of Spectroscopy that deals with the Infrared region of the Electromagnetic spectrum. It enables the distinction between Baltic and non-Baltic amber varieties because of a specific carbonyl absorption and it can also detect the relative age of an amber sample. In Organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a Functional group composed of a Carbon Atom double-bonded to an Oxygen On the other hand, it has been suggested by scientists that succinic acid is no original component of amber, but a degradation product of abietic acid. (Rottlaender, 1970)

Wood resin, the ancient source of amber

Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, the great amber-producing country is the promontory of Sambia, now part of Russia. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. Sambia (Земландский полуостров Zemlandsky poluostrov) or Samland ( is a Peninsula in the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending About 90% of the world's extractable amber is located in the Kaliningrad region of Russia on the Baltic Sea. ^[12] Pieces of amber torn from the seafloor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of long poles, which they drag in the sea-weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at one time carried on in the Curonian Lagoon by Messrs Stantien and Becker, the great amber merchants of Königsberg. The Curonian Lagoon (or Bay, Gulf; Kuršių MariosKuršu Joma Zalew Kuroński Kurisches Haff Kуршский залив is separated from the Baltic Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. At the present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The pit amber was formerly dug in open works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the blue earth have to be freed from matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in sand.

Since the establishment of the Amber Road, amber (which is also commonly referred to as the "Lithuanian gold") has substantially contributed to Lithuanian economy and culture. The Amber Road was an ancient Trade route for the transfer of Amber. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Nowadays amber jewelry and amberware is offered to foreign tourists in most souvenir shops as distinctive to Lithuania and its cultural heritage. Tourism is Travel for Recreational or Leisure purposes The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel A souvenir (from French, for memory) memento or keepsake is an object a traveler brings home for the memories associated with Cultural heritage ("national heritage" or just "heritage" is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or Society The Amber Museum has been established in Palanga, near the sea coast. The Palanga Amber Museum (Palangos gintaro muziejus near the Baltic Sea in Palanga, Lithuania, is a branch of the Lithuanian Art Museum. Palanga ( is a seaside Resort town in western Lithuania, on the shore of the Baltic Sea. Amber can also be found in Latvia. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region.

Dominican Amber

Since the book and movie Jurassic Park, Dominican amber has become world famous. Jurassic Park is a Science fiction Novel that was written by Michael Crichton and published in 1990. Dominican amber is Amber from the Dominican Republic. Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber and probably Dominican amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by being mostly transparent, and has a higher number of fossil inclusions. The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of Amber, called Baltic amber, with about 80% of the world's known amber found here FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. This has enabled the detailed reconstruction of the ecosystem of a long-vanished tropical forest. ^[13] Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber and probably of most amber found in the tropics. Hymenaea protera is an extinct prehistoric Leguminous tree the probable ancestor of present-day Hymenaea species It is not "succinite" but "retinite". The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of Amber, called Baltic amber, with about 80% of the world's known amber found here Retinite a general name applied to various Resins particularly those from beds of Brown coal, which are near Amber in appearance but contain little or ^[14]In contrast to much Baltic amber, Dominican amber found on the world market is natural amber the way it comes from the mines, and has not been enhanced or received any chemical or physical change. The age of Dominican amber is around 40 million years. ^[15]

Leaf in Dominican amber

Although all Dominican amber is fluorescent, the rarest Dominican Amber is Blue amber. Blue amber is Amber exhibiting a rare coloration It most commonly is found in the amber mines in the mountain ranges around Santiago Dominican Republic. It turns blue in natural sunlight and any other light source that has a slight component of UV (Ultra Violet). Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays In long-wave UV light it has a very strong reflection, almost white. Only about 100 kilos of this fossilized tree is found per year, which makes it valuable and expensive. ^[16]

Dragon carved from Dominican blue amber

Dominican Amber, and especially Dominican blue amber is mined through bell pitting, which is extremely dangerous. Dominican amber is Amber from the Dominican Republic. Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber and probably Blue amber is Amber exhibiting a rare coloration It most commonly is found in the amber mines in the mountain ranges around Santiago Dominican Republic. ^[17]Bell pitting is basically a foxhole dug with whatever tools are available. A bell pit is a primitive method of Mining Coal where the coal lies near the surface on flat land Machetes do the start, some shovels, picks and hammers may participate eventually. The pit itself goes as deep as possible or safe, sometimes vertical, sometimes horizontal, but never level. It snakes into hill sides, drops away, joins up with others, goes straight up and pops out elsewhere. Rarely are the pits large enough to stand in, and then only at the entrance. Miners crawl around on their knees using short-handled picks, shovels and machetes. The amber that is found is either directly sold as rough or raw pieces or cut and polished without any additional treatments or enhancements. ^[13]

The most common use for Dominican Amber is as ornaments and jewelry, while the more valuable enclosures and colorations become priced exhibition pieces both in private and public collections. Dominican amber is Amber from the Dominican Republic. Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber and probably ^[18]In Far East, Blue Amber has been masterfully worked into artistic carvings. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. Others have used Blue Amber to make jewelry that can be especially attractive for its natural fluorescence under UV lights. Blue amber is Amber exhibiting a rare coloration It most commonly is found in the amber mines in the mountain ranges around Santiago Dominican Republic. Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones Fluorescence is a Luminescence that is mostly found as an Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays In the Muslim world Dominican Amber and particularly Blue Amber beads have found their way into another use as worry beads, since Dominican Amber can very easily be worked. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Dominican amber is Amber from the Dominican Republic. Resin from the extinct species Hymenaea protera is the source of Dominican amber and probably Blue amber is Amber exhibiting a rare coloration It most commonly is found in the amber mines in the mountain ranges around Santiago Dominican Republic. A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing Kombologion is also a subgenus of the gastropod mollusc genus Calliostoma Komboloi, kompoloi (Greek κομπολόι komboˈloj ^[19][20]

A rare set of Arab worry beads (masbaha) made of Dominican blue amber. Kombologion is also a subgenus of the gastropod mollusc genus Calliostoma Komboloi, kompoloi (Greek κομπολόι komboˈloj A misbaha ( Arabic: مسبحة) subha ( Arabic: سبحة) Tasbih ( Urdu) or tespih (Turkish is a Blue amber is Amber exhibiting a rare coloration It most commonly is found in the amber mines in the mountain ranges around Santiago Dominican Republic.

Other locations

Amber deposits are found around the world. Some are much older than the well known amber deposits in the Baltic countries and the Dominican Republic, others are much younger. Some amber is considered to be up to 345 million years old (Northumberland USA).

A lesser known source of amber is in the Ukraine, within a marshy forested area on the Volyhn-Polesie border. Due to the shallow depth at which this amber is found it can be extracted with the simplest of tools, and has hence led to an economy of 'amber poaching' under cover of the forest. This Ukrainian amber has a wide range of colours, and was used in the restoration of 'amber room' in the Empress Catherines palace in St Petersberg (see below).

Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. Cromer is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the Norfolk coast, such as Great Yarmouth, as well as Southwold, Aldeburgh and Felixstowe in Suffolk, and as far south as Walton-on-the-Naze in Essex, whilst northwards it is not unknown in Yorkshire. Cromer is a coastal Town and Civil parish in the north of the English county of Norfolk. Norfolk (ˈnɔrfək is a low-lying county in East Anglia, England, United Kingdom. Great Yarmouth, often known to locals as Yarmouth, is a Coastal Town in Norfolk, England. Southwold is a Seaside town in the Waveney district of Suffolk, East Anglia, England, at the mouth of the River Blyth Aldeburgh ( IPA /ˈɔlbrə/ is a town in Suffolk, East Anglia, England; it is located on the Alde river at 52° 9' North 1° 36' East Felixstowe is a seaside town on the North Sea coast of Suffolk, England. Suffolk (ˈsʌfək is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. Walton-on-the-Naze is a small town in Essex, England, on the North Sea coast in the Tendring district Essex is a county in the East of England. The County town is Chelmsford, and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common Yorkshire is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in Great Britain. On the other side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of the Netherlands and Denmark. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the German and Polish coast but in the south of Sweden, in Bornholm and other islands, and in southern Finland. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Bornholm (b̥ʌnˈhʌlˀm or [bɔʀnˈhɔlˀm]) ( Old Norse: Burgundarholm ' is a Danish Island in the Baltic Sea located Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade with the south of Europe through the Amber Road. The Amber Road was an ancient Trade route for the transfer of Amber. Amber was carried to Olbia on the Black Sea, Massilia (today Marseille) on the Mediterranean, and Adria at the head of the Adriatic; and from these centres it was distributed over the Ancient Greek world. Olbia ( Sardinian: Terranoa, Gallurese: Tarranoa) is a town of approximately 51000 inhabitants in northeastern The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ Adria is a town in the province of Rovigo in the Veneto region of Northern Italy, situated between the mouths of the rivers Adige and The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c

Amber is found in Switzerland, Austria and France. Amber from the Swiss Alps is about 55 - 200 million years old, amber from Golling about 225 - 231 million years. The Swiss Alps (Schweizer Alpen Alpes suisses Alpi svizzere Alps svizras are the central portion of the Alps Mountain range that lies within The well-known SicilianAmber(Simetit - copal) is just 10 - 20 million years old.

In Africa, copal is found in the coastal countries of East and West Africa, but especially on Madagascar. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern This so-called Madagascar Amber is only 1,000 - 10,000 years old and consists of the solidified resin of the amber pine. Nigeria also has amber, which is about 60 million years old.

In Asia amber can be found especially in Burma (former Burma / Myanmar) as Burmit. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. It is about 50 million years and the Lebanon amber 130 - 135 million years old. Amber of the Australian-oceanic area can be found in New Zealand and Borneo (Sawak amber). New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located at the centre of Maritime Southeast Asia. They are about 20 - 60, part 70 - 100 million years old.

Amber is also found to a limited extent in the United States, as in the green-sand of New Jersey, but it has little economic value. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. Middle Cretaceous amber has also been found in Ellsworth County, Kansas. Ellsworth County (county code EW) is a county located in Central Kansas, in the Central United States. It has little value for jewelry makers, but is very valuable to biologists. The source of this amber is under a man-made lake.

A fluorescent amber occurs also in the southern state of Chiapas in Mexico, and is used for eye-catching jewellery. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. In Central America, the Olmec civilization was mining amber around 3000 B. C. There are legends in Mexico that mention the use of amber in adorning, consuming and using it for stress reduction as a natural remedy.

Indonesia is also a rich source of amber with large fragments being unearthed in both Java and Bali.

Amber treatments

Amber, 12 cm diameter

The Vienna amber factories which use pale amber to manufacture pipes and other smoking tools, turn it on a lathe and polish it with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil. A lathe (ˈleɪð is a Machine tool which spins a block of material to perform various operations such as Cutting, Sanding, Knurling The final lustre is given by friction with flannel.

When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Linseed oil, also known as flax seed oil or simply flax oil, is a clear to yellowish Drying oil derived from the dried ripe seeds of the Flax Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now used on a large scale in the formation of "ambroid" or "pressed amber". The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colors in polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri, as well as by celluloid and even glass. Copal is a type of Resin produced from plant or tree secretions, often taken from members of the genus Copaifera. The genus Agathis, commonly known as kauri or dammar, is a relatively small Genus of 21 species of Evergreen Trees in the Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Baltic amber is sometimes colored artificially, but also called "true amber".

Often amber (particularly with insect inclusions) is counterfeited using a plastic resin. A simple test consists of touching the object with a heated pin and determining if the resultant odor is of wood resin. If not, the object is counterfeit, although a positive test may not be conclusive owing to a thin coat of real resin. Often counterfeits will have a too perfect pose and position of the trapped insect.

Amber art and ornament

Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very early times. It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in Switzerland, and it occurs with Neolithic remains in Denmark, whilst in England it is found with interments of the bronze age. "Lion Gate" redirects here For other uses see Lions' Gate (disambiguation. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for A cup turned in amber from a bronze-age barrow at Hove is now in the Brighton Museum. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves Hove is a town on the south coast of England, immediately to the west of its larger neighbour Brighton, with whom it forms the Unitary authority Brighton Brighton ( is a town on the south coast of England and with its neighbour Hove, forms the city of Brighton and Hove. Beads of amber occur with Anglo-Saxon relics in the south of England. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south Amber was valued as an amulet and it is still believed to possess medicinal properties. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic

Unpolished amber stones

Amber is used for beads and ornaments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the Turks as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes from mouth to mouth. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-colored, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to Vienna for the manufacture of smoking appliances. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria.

The Amber Room was a collection of chamber wall panels commissioned in 1701 for the king of Prussia, then given to Tsar Peter the Great. The original Amber Room (English sometimes Amber Chamber, Янтарная комната, Bernsteinzimmer Bursztynowa komnata in the Catherine Palace Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The room was hidden in place from invading Nazi forces in 1941, who upon finding it in the Catherine Palace, disassembled it and moved it to Königsberg. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. What happened to the room beyond this point is unclear, but it may have been destroyed when the Russians burned the German fortification where it was stored. It is presumed lost. It was re-created in 2003. ^[21]

The Amber Room was reconstructed from the Kaliningrad amber. The original Amber Room (English sometimes Amber Chamber, Янтарная комната, Bernsteinzimmer Bursztynowa komnata in the Catherine Palace Kaliningrad (Калининград is a Seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian Exclave between Poland

Amber has also been used to create the "frog" part of a Violin bow. It was commissioned by Gennady Filimonov and made by the late American Master Bowmaker Keith Peck ^[22]

The Amber Frog bow by Keith Peck made in 1996/97 commissioned by Gennady Filimonov. Keith M Peck (1953 &ndash 1998 was a highly acclaimed American bow maker from Evanston Illinois. In Music, a bow is moved across some part of a Musical instrument, causing Vibration which the instrument emits as Sound.

See also

• List of types of amber
• List of minerals
• Ammolite
• Copal
• Dominican amber
• Spirit of amber
• Oil of amber
• Amber Road
• Amber Room

References

External links

• The World of Amber Professor Aber's amber page, Earth Science Department of Emporia State University
• Farlang many full text historical references on Amber Theophrastus, George Frederick Kunz, and special on Baltic amber. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic George Frederick Kunz ( September 29, 1856 – June 29, 1932) was an American Mineralogist. The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of Amber, called Baltic amber, with about 80% of the world's known amber found here
• IPS Publications on amber inclusions International Paleoentomological Society: Scientific Articles on amber and its inclusions
• Webmineral on Amber Physical properties and mineralogical information
• Mindat Amber Image and locality information on amber
• NY Times 40 million year old extinct bee in Dominican amber