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Alpha-fetoprotein
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| Identifiers | ||
| Symbol(s) | AFP; FETA; HPAFP | |
| External IDs | OMIM: 104150 MGI: 87951 HomoloGene: 36278 | |
| RNA expression pattern | ||
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| Orthologs | ||
| Human | Mouse | |
| Entrez | 174 | 11576 |
| Ensembl | ENSG00000081051 | ENSMUSG00000054932 |
| Uniprot | P02771 | Q3TGA3 |
| Refseq | NM_001134 (mRNA) NP_001125 (protein) |
NM_007423 (mRNA) NP_031449 (protein) |
| Location | Chr 4: 74.52 - 74.54 Mb | Chr 5: 91.57 - 91.58 Mb |
| Pubmed search | [1] | [2] |
Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a molecule produced in the developing embryo and fetus. The Human Genome Organisation (HUGO is an organization involved in the Human Genome Project, a project about mapping the human genome The Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI website is run by The Jackson Laboratory. HomoloGene, a tool of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI is a system for automated detection of homologs (similarity attributable to descent The Entrez Global Query Cross-Database Search System is a powerful Federated search engine or Web portal that allows users to search many discrete Health sciences Ensembl is a joint scientific project between the European Bioinformatics Institute and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, which was launched in 1999 in response to the imminent UniProt is the uni versal prot ein resource a central repository of Protein data created by combining Swiss-Prot, TrEMBL PubMed is a free search engine for accessing the MEDLINE database of citations and abstracts of biomedical research articles An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and In humans, AFP levels decrease gradually after birth, reaching adult levels by 8 to 12 months. Normal adult AFP levels are low, but detectable; however, AFP has no known function in normal adults. In normal fetuses, AFP binds the hormone estradiol. Estradiol (17β-estradiol (also oestradiol) is a Sex hormone. AFP is measured in pregnant women, using maternal blood or amniotic fluid, as a screening test for a subset developmental abnormalities, principally open neural tube defects. Amniotic fluid or liquor amnii is the nourishing and protecting liquid contained by the Amnion of a pregnant woman It is also measured in pregnant women, other adults, and children, serving as a biomarker to detect a subset of tumors, principally hepatocellular carcinoma and endodermal sinus tumors. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC also called hepatoma) is a primary malignancy (cancer of the Liver. Endodermal sinus tumor ( EST) also known as Yolk sac tumor ( YST) is a member of the Germ cell tumor group of Cancers
Contents |
Structure and levels
AFP is a glycoprotein of 590 amino acids and a carbohydrate moiety. Not to be confused with Peptidoglycan. Glycoproteins are proteins that contain Oligosaccharide chains ( Glycans) covalently attached Many functions have been proposed for AFP; an anti-cancer active site peptide has been identified and is referred to as AFPep. AFPep is a cyclic nonapeptide with molecular weight 969 D and is derived from the antioncogenic active site of Alpha fetoprotein (AFP AFP is normally produced by the fetal yolk sac, the fetal gastrointestinal tract, and eventually by the fetal liver. The yolk sac is the first element seen in the Gestational sac during Pregnancy, usually at 5 weeks Gestation. Levels of AFP in fetal serum rise until the end of the first trimester of gestation and then fall. Because the fetus excretes AFP into its urine, amniotic fluid levels of AFP tend to mirror fetal serum levels. The amniotic sac is the sac in which the Fetus develops Some sources consider it to be equivalent to the Amnion. In contrast, maternal serum levels of fetal AFP are much lower but continue to rise until about week 32.
History
LabCorp, a large US clinical laboratory testing company, began offering AFP screening tests in the early 1980s. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [1]
AFP in normal infants
The normal range of AFP for adults and children is variously reported as under 50, under 10, and under 5 ng/mL. [2][3] At birth, normal infants have AFP levels 4 or more orders of magnitude above this normal range, decreasing to within it over the first 1–2 years of life. An order of magnitude is the class of scale or magnitude of any amount where each class contains values of a fixed ratio to the class preceding it [4][5][6][7][8][9] During this time, the normal range of AFP levels spans approximately 2 orders of magnitude. [6] Correct evaluation of abnormal AFP levels in infants must take into account these normal patterns.
Very high AFP levels may be subject to hooking (see Tumor marker), resulting in a reported high level that is nonetheless significantly lower than the actual level. A tumor marker is a substance found in the Blood, Urine, or body tissues that can be elevated in Cancer, among other tissue types [10] This is important for analysis of a series of AFP tumor marker tests, eg in the context of post-treatment early surveillance of cancer survivors, where the rate of decrease of AFP has diagnostic value.
| Elevated alphafetoprotein Classification and external resources |
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| ICD-10 | R77. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings 2, Z36. 1 |
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| ICD-9 | V28.1 |
AFP tests
There are two categories of AFP tests: tests performed on serum (blood plasma), and tests performed on amniotic fluid. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended The amniotic sac is the sac in which the Fetus develops Some sources consider it to be equivalent to the Amnion. Tests performed on serum are further categorized by the reason for performing the test: maternal serum, adult tumor marker, and pediatric tumor marker.
Tests performed on serum
The standard is a quantitative test, reporting a measured concentration of AFP in the sample, but there is also a less expensive qualitative test, reporting only that the concentration is normal or high. Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended The qualitative test is appropriate only in some circumstances.
The resulting test report should specify the assay method and equipment used, and the report of a quantitative test should also provide a reference range for the test result. Many laboratories report reference ranges that are based on all other samples tested in that laboratory, necessarily including samples with abnormal AFP concentrations due to disease. Superior reference ranges are produced by research on healthy subjects.
Maternal serum
Maternal serum AFP tests need to be interpreted according to the gestational age, as levels rise until about 32 weeks gestation. "Mom" "Mum" and "Mommy" redirect here Typically, such measurements are done in the middle of the second trimester (14-16 weeks). Elevated levels are seen in multiple gestation as well as in a number of fetal abnormalities, such as neural tube defects including spina bifida and anencephaly, and abdominal wall defects. A multiple birth occurs when more than one Fetus is carried to term in a single Pregnancy. A neural tube defect will occur in human Embryos if there is an interference with the closure of the Neural tube that occurs around the 28th day after Fertilization Spina bifida ( Latin: "split spine" is a developmental Birth defect involving the Neural tube: incomplete closure of the Embryonic neural Anencephaly is a Cephalic disorder that results from a Neural tube defect that occurs when the cephalic (head end of the neural tube fails to close usually between An Infant born with an abdominal wall defect has an abnormal opening on the abdomen. Other possibilities are errors in the date of the gestation or fetal demise. In contrast, low levels of maternal serum AFP are associated with Down syndrome and Trisomy 18. Down syndrome, Down's syndrome, or trisomy 21 is a Chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. Trisomy 18 or Edwards Syndrome is a Genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 18th chromosome. Diabetic patients also have lower levels. Patients with abnormal levels need to undergo detailed obstetric ultrasonography. Obstetric sonography (ultrasonography is the application of Medical ultrasonography to Obstetrics, in which ultrasound is used to visualize the Embryo The information is then used to decide whether to proceed with amniocentesis. Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical procedure used in Prenatal diagnosis of genetic abnormalities and fetal
Maternal serum AFP may be measured as part of a routine prenatal screening test:
- Triple test: AFP, hCG and estriol
- Quad test: AFP, hCG, estriol, and Inhibin
- Genetic counseling usually is offered when the screening test result is positive. The triple test, also called triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test is an investigation performed during Pregnancy (usually the second trimester Human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG) is a Glycoprotein Hormone produced in Pregnancy that is made by the Embryo soon after conception Estriol (also oestriol) is one of the three main Estrogens produced by the human body Human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG) is a Glycoprotein Hormone produced in Pregnancy that is made by the Embryo soon after conception Estriol (also oestriol) is one of the three main Estrogens produced by the human body Inhibin is a peptide that is an inhibitor of FSH Synthesis and Secretion, and participates in the regulation of the Menstrual cycle Genetic counseling is the process by which patients or relatives at risk of an inherited disorder are advised of the consequences and nature of the disorder the probability of developing
Tumor marker
Like any elevated tumor marker, elevated AFP by itself is not diagnostic, only suggestive. A tumor marker is a substance found in the Blood, Urine, or body tissues that can be elevated in Cancer, among other tissue types Tumor markers are used primarily to monitor the result of a treatment (e. g. chemotherapy). Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. If levels of AFP go down after treatment, the tumor is not growing. In the case of babies, after treatment AFP should go down faster than it would normally. A temporary increase in AFP immediately following chemotherapy may indicate not that the tumor is growing but rather that it is shrinking (and releasing AFP as the tumor cells die). AFP-L3, an isoform of AFP which binds Lens culinaris agglutinin, can be particularly useful in early identification of aggressive tumors associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In Oncology, AFP-L3 is an isoform of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP a substance typically used in the Triple test during pregnancy and for screening chronic liver The lentil or daal or pulse ( Lens culinaris) is a bushy Annual plant of the legume family grown for its lens-shaped Seeds Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC also called hepatoma) is a primary malignancy (cancer of the Liver.
AFP is the main tumor marker (sometimes with HCG) used to monitor testicular cancer, ovarian cancer, and malignant teratoma in any location: values of AFP over time can have significant effect on the treatment plan. A tumor marker is a substance found in the Blood, Urine, or body tissues that can be elevated in Cancer, among other tissue types Human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG) is a Glycoprotein Hormone produced in Pregnancy that is made by the Embryo soon after conception Testicular cancer is Cancer that develops in the Testicles a part of the Male reproductive system Ovarian cancer is a cancerous growth arising from an Ovary. The cancer most commonly forms in the lining of the ovary (resulting in epithelial A teratoma is a type of neoplasm. The word teratoma comes from Greek and means roughly "monstrous tumor"
AFP is normally elevated in infants, and because teratoma is the single most common kind of tumor in infants, several studies have provided reference ranges for AFP in normal infants. A teratoma is a type of neoplasm. The word teratoma comes from Greek and means roughly "monstrous tumor" [11][12][13]. Perhaps the most useful is this equation: log Y = 7. 397 - 2. 622. log (X + 10), where X = age in days and Y = AFP level in nanograms per milliliter. [14]
Tests performed on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
In normal infants, AFP in CSF is[15]:
- median 61 kIU/L (5th-95th centile: 2-889 kIU/L) in infants -69 to 31 days old
- median 1. Cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF) Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear Bodily fluid that occupies the Subarachnoid space and the Ventricular system 2 kIU/L (5th-95th centile: 0. 1-12. 5 kIU/L) in infants 32 to 110 days old
Levels of AFP in CSF decline with gestational age in proportion to levels of AFP in serum[16]
Interpretation of AFP test results
AFP test results often are reported as either ng/ml or MoM (multiple of the median, where the median is calculated for an appropriate reference population). A multiple of the median ( MoM) is a measure of how far an individual test result deviates from the median
Maternal serum
Abnormally elevated AFP in the serum of a pregnant woman can have one or more of these sources:
- a problem with the fetus
- a problem with the placenta
- a tumor or liver disease in the woman
- a normally elevated AFP in the fetus or woman (some people naturally have very high AFP)
Usual follow-up steps include (1) a prenatal ultrasound exam to look for fetal abnormalities and/or (2) measurement of AFP in amniotic fluid obtained via amniocentesis. See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT) is a medical procedure used in Prenatal diagnosis of genetic abnormalities and fetal
Amniotic fluid
AFP in amniotic fluid has one or two sources. The fetus normally excretes AFP into its urine, hence into the amniotic fluid. A fetus with one of three broad categories of defects also releases AFP by other means. These categories are open neural tube defect, open abdominal wall defect, and skin disease or other failure of the interior or exterior body surface. A neural tube defect will occur in human Embryos if there is an interference with the closure of the Neural tube that occurs around the 28th day after Fertilization An Infant born with an abdominal wall defect has an abnormal opening on the abdomen. In Medicine, a dermatosis is a generic term for disease of the skin.
Abnormally elevated AFP in amniotic fluid can have one or more of many different causes:
- normal elevation. 75% of AF AFP test results in the range 2. 0 to 4. 9 MoM are false positives: the baby is normal.
- open neural tube defect
- open abdominal wall defect
- congenital nephrosis
- others
Sources of AFP: Normal
Serum alpha-fetoprotein is a fetal serum protein produced by the yolk sac and liver.
Sources of AFP: Abnormal
Tumors
Principal tumors that secrete AFP are endodermal sinus tumor (yolk sac carcinoma), neuroblastoma, hepatoblastoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma. See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic Endodermal sinus tumor ( EST) also known as Yolk sac tumor ( YST) is a member of the Germ cell tumor group of Cancers Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid Cancer in childhood and the most common cancer in infancy with an annual incidence of about 650 new cases per year in the Hepatoblastoma is an uncommon malignant Liver neoplasm occurring in infants and children and composed of tissue resembling fetal or mature liver cells or Bile ducts Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC also called hepatoma) is a primary malignancy (cancer of the Liver.
With regard to hepatocellular carcinoma, AFP is not useful for screening[17] but is somewhat useful for surveillance after treatment. [18]
Rare AFP-secreting tumor types include carcinoma in a malignant mixed Müllerian tumor. A carcinoma is any Malignant Cancer that arises from epithelial cells. [19]
In Wilms tumor AFP is rarely elevated, but when it is elevated it may serve as a marker of disease progression or recurrence. Wilms' tumor or nephroblastoma is a Tumor of the Kidneys that typically occurs in Children rarely in Adults Its common name is [20]
There are case reports of elevated AFP associated with teratoma. In Medicine, a case report is a detailed report of the Symptoms signs Diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of an individual Patient A teratoma is a type of neoplasm. The word teratoma comes from Greek and means roughly "monstrous tumor" However, some of these case reports involve infants but do not correct for the normal elevation of AFP in infants, while others ignore the likelihood that teratoma (and other germ cell tumors) may in fact be mixed tumors containing elements of endodermal sinus tumor. A germ cell tumor ( GCT) is a Neoplasm derived from Germ cells Germ cells normally occur inside the gonads ( Ovary and Testis)
In patients with AFP-secreting tumors, serum levels of AFP often correlate with tumor size. Resection is usually associated with a fall in serum levels. Serum levels are useful in assessing response to treatment.
Other
Increased serum levels in adults are also seen in acute hepatitis, colitis and ataxia telangiectasia.
References
- ^ LabCorp 2004 Annual Report
- ^ Ball D, Rose E, Alpert E (1992). "Alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal adults". Am. J. Med. Sci. 303 (3): 157-9. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 1375809.
- ^ Sizaret P, Martel N, Tuyns A, Reynaud S (1977). "Mean alpha-fetoprotein values of 1,333 males over 15 years by age groups". Digestion 15 (2): 97-103. PMID 65304.
- ^ Blohm ME, Vesterling-Hörner D, Calaminus G, Göbel U (1998). "Alpha 1-fetoprotein (AFP) reference values in infants up to 2 years of age. ". Pediatric hematology and oncology 15 (2): 135-42. PMID 9592840.
- ^ Ohama K, Nagase H, Ogino K, et al (1997). "Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels in normal children. ". European journal of pediatric surgery : official journal of Austrian Association of Pediatric Surgery . . . [et al] = Zeitschrift für Kinderchirurgie 7 (5): 267-9. PMID 9402482.
- ^ a b Lee PI, Chang MH, Chen DS, Lee CY (January 1989). "Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal infants: a reappraisal of regression analysis and sex difference". J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 8 (1): 19–25. PMID 2471821.
- ^ Blair JI, Carachi R, Gupta R, Sim FG, McAllister EJ, Weston R (1987). "Plasma alpha fetoprotein reference ranges in infancy: effect of prematurity. ". Arch. Dis. Child. 62 (4): 362-9. PMID 2439023.
- ^ Bader D, Riskin A, Vafsi O, et al (2004). "Alpha-fetoprotein in the early neonatal period--a large study and review of the literature". Clin. Chim. Acta 349 (1-2): 15-23. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15469851.
- ^ Wu JT, Roan Y, Knight JA (1985). "Serum levels of AFP in normal infants: their clinical and physiological significance", in Mizejewski GJ, Porter I: Alfa-Fetoprotein and Congenital Disorders. Academic Press, 111-122.
- ^ Jassam N, Jones CM, Briscoe T, Horner JH (2006). "The hook effect: a need for constant vigilance. ". Ann. Clin. Biochem. 43 (Pt 4): 314-7. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16824284. PubMed
- ^ Serum alpha fetoprotein (AFP) levels in normal infants
- ^ Alpha 1-fetoprotein (AFP) reference values in infants up to 2 years of age
- ^ Alpha-fetoprotein in the early neonatal period--a large study and review of the literature
- ^ Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels in normal infants: a reappraisal of regression analysis and sex difference
- ^ Coakley J, Kellie SJ, Nath C, Munas A, Cooke-Yarborough C. Interpretation of alpha-fetoprotein concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of infants. Ann Clin Biochem. 2005 Jan;42(Pt 1):24-9. PubMed abstract
- ^ Alpha-fetoprotein in human fetal cerebrospinal fluid
- ^ Paul SB, Gulati MS, Sreenivas V, Madan K, Gupta AK, Mukhopadhyay S, Acharya SK (2007). "Evaluating patients with cirrhosis for hepatocellular carcinoma: value of clinical symptomatology, imaging and alpha-fetoprotein. ". Oncology 72 Suppl 1: 117–23. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 18087192.
- ^ Kim do Y, Paik YH, Ahn SH, Youn YJ, Choi JW, Kim JK, Lee KS, Chon CY, Han KH (2007). "PIVKA-II is a useful tumor marker for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after surgical resection. ". Oncology 72 Suppl 1: 52–7. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 18087182.
- ^ Rebischung C, Pautier P, Morice P, Lhomme C, Duvillard P (2000). "Alpha-fetoprotein production by a malignant mixed Müllerian tumor of the ovary. ". Gynecol. Oncol. 77 (1): 203–5. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 10739713.
- ^ Crocoli A, Madafferi S, Jenkner A, Zaccara A, Inserra A (2007). "Elevated serum alpha-fetoprotein in Wilms tumor may follow the same pattern of other fetal neoplasms after treatment: evidence from three cases. ". Pediatr Surg Int: 499. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17987303.
Further reading
- Nahon JL (1987). "The regulation of albumin and alpha-fetoprotein gene expression in mammals. ". Biochimie 69 (5): 445-59. PMID 2445387.
- Tilghman SM (1989). "The structure and regulation of the alpha-fetoprotein and albumin genes. ". Oxf. Surv. Eukaryot. Genes 2: 160-206. PMID 2474300.
- Mizejewski GJ (2003). "Biological role of alpha-fetoprotein in cancer: prospects for anticancer therapy. ". Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2 (6): 709-35. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12503217.
- Yachnin S, Hsu R, Heinrikson RL, Miller JB (1977). "Studies on human alpha-fetoprotein. Isolation and characterization of monomeric and polymeric forms and amino-terminal sequence analysis. ". Biochim. Biophys. Acta 493 (2): 418-28. PMID 70228.
- Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (1977). "Comparative chemical structures of human alpha-fetoproteins from fetal serum and from ascites fluid of a patient with hepatoma. ". Cancer Res. 37 (10): 3663-7. PMID 71198.
- Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (1978). "Copper(II)-binding ability of human alpha-fetoprotein. ". Cancer Res. 38 (10): 3483-6. PMID 80265.
- Aoyagi Y, Ikenaka T, Ichida F (1979). "alpha-Fetoprotein as a carrier protein in plasma and its bilirubin-binding ability. ". Cancer Res. 39 (9): 3571-4. PMID 89900.
- Torres JM, Anel A, Uriel J (1992). "Alpha-fetoprotein-mediated uptake of fatty acids by human T lymphocytes. ". J. Cell. Physiol. 150 (3): 456-62. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 1371512.
- Greenberg F, Faucett A, Rose E, et al. (1992). "Congenital deficiency of alpha-fetoprotein. ". Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 167 (2): 509-11. PMID 1379776.
- Bansal V, Kumari K, Dixit A, Sahib MK (1991). "Interaction of human alpha fetoprotein with bilirubin. ". Indian J. Exp. Biol. 28 (7): 697-8. PMID 1703124.
- Pucci P, Siciliano R, Malorni A, et al. (1991). "Human alpha-fetoprotein primary structure: a mass spectrometric study. ". Biochemistry 30 (20): 5061-6. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 1709810.
- Liu MC, Yu S, Sy J, et al. (1985). "Tyrosine sulfation of proteins from the human hepatoma cell line HepG2. ". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 82 (21): 7160-4. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 2414772.
- Gibbs PE, Zielinski R, Boyd C, Dugaiczyk A (1987). "Structure, polymorphism, and novel repeated DNA elements revealed by a complete sequence of the human alpha-fetoprotein gene. ". Biochemistry 26 (5): 1332-43. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 2436661.
- Sakai M, Morinaga T, Urano Y, et al. (1985). "The human alpha-fetoprotein gene. Sequence organization and the 5' flanking region. ". J. Biol. Chem. 260 (8): 5055-60. PMID 2580830.
- Ruoslahti E, Pihko H, Vaheri A, et al. (1975). "Alpha fetoprotein: structure and expression in man and inbred mouse strains under normal conditions and liver injury. ". Johns Hopkins Med. J. Suppl. 3: 249-55. PMID 4138095.
- Urano Y, Sakai M, Watanabe K, Tamaoki T (1985). "Tandem arrangement of the albumin and alpha-fetoprotein genes in the human genome. ". Gene 32 (3): 255-61. PMID 6085063.
- Beattie WG, Dugaiczyk A (1983). "Structure and evolution of human alpha-fetoprotein deduced from partial sequence of cloned cDNA. ". Gene 20 (3): 415-22. PMID 6187626.
- Morinaga T, Sakai M, Wegmann TG, Tamaoki T (1983). "Primary structures of human alpha-fetoprotein and its mRNA. ". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 80 (15): 4604-8. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 6192439.
See also
External links
A tumor marker is a substance found in the Blood, Urine, or body tissues that can be elevated in Cancer, among other tissue types In Oncology, AFP-L3 is an isoform of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP a substance typically used in the Triple test during pregnancy and for screening chronic liver Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and booksDapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic