Algerian War
Barricade Week in Alger, January 1960.
Date 1 November 1954 – 19 March 1962 Location Algeria Result Algerian independence
Belligerents
FLN (1954-62) MNA (1954-62)	France (1954-62)	FAF (1960-61) OAS (1961-62)
Commanders
Mostefa Benboulaïd Ferhat Abbas Hocine Aït Ahmed Ahmed Ben Bella Krim Belkacem Larbi Ben M'Hidi Rabah Bitat Mohamed Boudiaf Messali Hadj	Paul Cherrière (1954-55) Henri Lorillot (1955-56) Raoul Salan (1956-58) Maurice Challe (1958-60) Jean Crepin (1960-61) Fernand Gambiez (1961) Charles Ailleret (1961-62)	Said Boualam Pierre Lagaillarde Raoul Salan
Strength
40,000	400,000[1] 60,000 Harki	3,000 (OAS)
Casualties and losses
141,000+ dead, 160,000 wounded	28,500 dead 65,000 wounded	100 dead (OAS) 2,000 jailed (OAS)

The Algerian War (French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962), also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria's independence from France. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The National Liberation Front ( Arabic: جبهة التحرير الوطني transliterated: Jabhat al-Taḩrīr al-Waţanī French: Front The Mouvement National Algérien (الحركة الوطنية الجزائرية or MNA ( French, Algerian National Movement) was an organization founded This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Front de l'Algérie Française (French Algerian Front FAF was a political and militant movement in favour of French Algeria, created in 1960 in Algiers The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit Ferhat Abbas ( 24 October, 1899 &ndash 23 December, 1985) ( Algerian: Ferḥat Ɛebbas Arabic: فرحات عباس was an Hocine Aït Ahmed (in Kabyle: Ḥusin Ait Ḥmed (b 20 August 1926 in Ain El Hammam, Kabylie) is an Algerian politician Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President Krim Belkacem (properly Belqasem Krim( Arabic: بلقاصم كريم) ( December 14, 1922 - October 18, 1970) was an Algerian Mohammed Larbi Ben M'hidi (1923&ndash1957 ( محمد العربي بن مهيدي) was a prominent Algerian leader during the war of independence. Rabah Bitat ( رابح بيطاط) ( December 19, 1925 - April 9/10 2000 was the acting President of Algeria from 27 December Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d Raoul Albin Louis Salan ( 10 June 1899 - 3 July 1984) was an officer in the French Army and the fourth French commanding Maurice Challe ( 5 September 1905 - 18 January 1979) was a French general during the Algerian War, one of four generals Fernand Gambiez ( 27 February 1903 – 29 March 1989) was a French Army general and military historian he fought in World Pierre Lagaillarde ( Courbevoie, 15 May 1931) was French politician and a founder of the Organisation armée secrète (OAS Raoul Albin Louis Salan ( 10 June 1899 - 3 July 1984) was an officer in the French Army and the fourth French commanding Harki (adjective from the Arabic harka, standard Arabic haraka حركة "war party" or "movement" i French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. One of the most important decolonization wars, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians, use of torture on both sides and counter-terrorism operations by the French Army. Decolonization refers to the undoing of Colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion Counter-terrorism or counterterrorism refers to the practices tactics, techniques and strategies that Governments militaries, Police departments The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest Effectively started on 1 November 1954 during the Toussaint Rouge (Red All Saints day), the conflict shook the French Fourth Republic's (1946–58) foundations and led to its collapse. The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the Under directives from Guy Mollet's (SFIO) government, the French Army initiated a campaign of "pacification" of what was still considered at the time to be fully part of France. Guy Mollet (31 December 1905 - 3 October 1975 was a French Socialist politician This "public order operation" quickly grew to a size where it could be called a full-scale war. Algerians, who at first were mostly in favor of peace and tranquillity, turned increasingly toward the goal of independence, supported by other Arab countries and, more generally, by worldwide public opinion fueled by anti-colonialist ideas. Meanwhile, the French divided themselves on the issues of "French Algeria" (l'Algérie Française), of the maintenance of the status quo, the acceptance of negotiations and of an intermediate status between independence and complete integration in the French Republic, and complete independence.

Because of the instability of the French parliament the French Fourth Republic was dissolved with Charles de Gaulle's return to power during the May 1958 crisis and his subsequent founding of the Fifth Republic and the establishment of a new Constitution constructed by himself and his Gaullist followers. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on Gaullism (Gaullisme is a French political ideology based on the thought and action of Charles de Gaulle. De Gaulle's return to power was supposed to ensure Algeria's continued occupation and integration with the French Community, which had replaced the French Union which gathered France's colonies. The French Community (Communauté française was the political entity which replaced in 1958 the French Union, which in turn was the descendant of the French colonial The French Union (Union française was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system the " French Empire France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world However, De Gaulle progressively shifted in favor of Algerian independence, purportedly seeing it as inevitable. De Gaulle thus engaged in negotiations with the FLN, leading to the March 1962 Evian Accords which resulted in the independence of Algeria. The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the After the failed April 1961 Algiers putsch organized by Generals hostile to the negotiations headed by Michel Debré's Gaullist government, the OAS (Organisation de l'armée secrète), which grouped various opponents of Algerian independence, initiated a campaign of bombings as well as peaceful strikes and demonstrations in Algeria in order to block the implementation of the Evian Accords and the exile of the pieds-noirs. The Algiers putsch (Putsch d'Alger or fr ''Coup d'État d'Alger'' also known as the Generals' putsch ( Putsch des Généraux) took place from the afternoon Michel Debré (15 January 1912 2 August 1996 was a French Gaullist politician The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit Ahmed Ben Bella, who had been arrested in 1956 along with other FLN leaders, became the first President of Algeria. Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President The President is the head of state and chief executive of Algeria, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Algerian armed forces To this day, the war has provided an important strategy frame for counter-insurgency thinkers, while the use of torture by the French Army has provoked a moral and political debate on the legitimacy and effectiveness of such methods. A Strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often "winning See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally This debate is far from being settled as torture was used by both sides.

The Algerian war is a founding event of Algerian history. It left long-standing scars in both French and Algerian society, and still affects some segments of society in both countries to this day. After the 1997 legislative elections, won by the Socialist Party (PS), the National Assembly officially acknowledged in June 1999, a full 37 years after the Evian agreements, that a "war" had taken place (official terminology was a "public order operation");^[2] while the Paris massacre of 1961 was recognized by the French state only in October 2001; on the other hand the Oran massacre of 1962 by the FLN has not been recognized yet by the Algerian state. French legislative election took place in May 25 and June 1 1997 to elect the 11th National Assembly of the Fifth Republic. The Socialist Party ( Parti Socialiste, PS is the largest left-wing political party in France. The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the In Urban planning, the notion of " public order " refers to a City containing relatively empty (and orderly Spaces which allow for flexibility The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 The Oran massacre of 1962 was a massacre of civilians in Oran, Algeria on July 5, 1962, at the end of the Algerian War (1954–62 Relations between France and Algeria are still deeply marked by this conflict and its aftermath.

Contents 1 French Algeria 1.1 Conquest of Algeria 1.2 Algerian nationalism 2 Beginning of hostilities 3 The FLN 4 After the Philippeville massacre 5 Battle of Algiers 6 Guerrilla war 7 French counter-insurgency operations 8 Fall of the Fourth Republic 9 De Gaulle 10 The barricades week 11 End of the war 12 Pieds-Noirs' and Harkis' exodus 12.1 Pieds-noirs 12.2 Harkis 13 Death toll 14 Lasting effects in Algerian politics 15 Torture 16 "French school" 17 Historiography of the war and of colonialism 18 References 18.1 INA archives 18.2 Contemporary works 18.3 Historians works 18.3.1 English language 18.3.2 French language 19 Films 20 See also 21 External links

French Algeria

Main articles: French rule in Algeria and Nationalism and resistance in Algeria

Conquest of Algeria

On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830. French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems Algerian nationalism A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s ^[3]. Directed by Marshall Bugeaud, who became the first Governor-General of Algeria, the conquest was violent, marked by a "scorched earth" policy designed to reduce the power of the bey, this included massacres, mass rapes, etc ^[4]. Thomas Robert Bugeaud Marquis de la Piconnerie Duc d'Isly ( October 15, 1784 - June 10, 1849) was a Marshal of France and List of colonial heads of Algeria Beylerbey: Bey of beys Kalifah: Governor acting in the absence of the Beylerbey Aga ( Agha A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between Applauding Bugeaud's method, liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville could declare: "war in Africa is a science. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Everyone is familiar with its rules and everyone can apply those rules with almost complete certainty of success. One of the greatest services that Field Marshal Bugeaud has rendered his country is to have spread, perfected and made everyone aware of this new science. "^[4] Officially annexed in 1834, Algeria was divided the same year into three French departments, Alger, Oran and Constantine. In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division Oran is a former French département in Algeria existing from 1848 until 1962 Under the Second Empire (1852-1871), the Code de l'indigénat (Indigenous Code) was implemented by the senatus consulte of July 14, 1865. The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The Code de l'indigénat was a set of laws creating in practice an inferior legal status for natives of French Colonies from 1887 until 1944 - 1947. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Year 1865 ( MDCCCLXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Its first article stipulated that

"The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in the army (armée de terre) and the navy (armée de mer). He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoyed the rights of a French citizen; in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. French nationality law is historically based on the principle of Jus soli, according to Ernest Renan 's definition opposed to the German "^[5]

However, until 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims, and 152 by Jewish Algerians. ^[6] The 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. Adolphe Crémieux ( April 30, 1796 &ndash February 10, 1880) was a French - Jewish lawyer and statesman and a staunch defender French nationality law is historically based on the principle of Jus soli, according to Ernest Renan 's definition opposed to the German In 1881, the Code de l'Indigénat officialized the discrimination, by creating specific penalities for indigenes and organizing the seizure or appropriation of their lands. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is ^[6]

Algerian nationalism

Algerians (natives and Europeans altogether) took part in World War I, fighting for France as tirailleurs (such regiments were created as early as 1842. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Tirailleur literally means a Sharpshooter in French from tir - target ^[7]), tabors, goumiers, and spahis. Goumier is a term used for Moroccan soldiers who served in auxiliary units attached to the French Army, between 1908 and 1956 Spahis were light cavalry regiments of the French army recruited primarily from the indigenous populations of Algeria, Tunisia and With Wilson's 1918 proclamation of the Fourteen Points, whose fifth point proclaimed that "A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined," some Algerian intellectuals — dubbed oulémas — began to nurture the desire for, if not independence, at least autonomy and self-rule. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization. It is in this context that Hadj Abd el-Kadir (grand-son of Abd el-Kadir, who had spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 19th century, and a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party (PCF)), founded in 1926 the North African Star (Etoile nordafricaine) party, to which Messali Hadj, also member of the PCF and of its affiliated trade union, the CGTU, joined the following year. `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of The Étoile Nord-Africaine or ENA ( French for North African Star) was an early Algerian Nationalist organization Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d Confédération générale du travail unitaire was a Trade union confederation in France. The North African Party broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Paris' demand. Amid growing discontent from the Algerian population, the Third Republic (1871-1940) acknowledged some demands, and the Popular Front initiated the Blum-Viollette proposalin 1936 which was supposed to enlighten the Indigenous Code by giving French citizenship to a small number of of Muslims. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Popular Front (French Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements including the French Communist Party (PCF the Socialist The Blum-Viollette proposal takes its name from Maurice Viollette, who acted as the French premier and governor-general of Algeria, which was the subject of the proposed The pieds-noirs (Algerians of European origin) however violently demonstrated against it, while the North African Party opposed it, leading to the project's abandonment. The independent party was dissolved in 1937 and its leaders were charged with illegal reconstitution of a dissolved league, leading to Messali Hadj's 1937 foundation of the Parti du peuple algérien (Algerian People's Party, PPA), which this time no longer espoused full independence, but only an extensive autonomy. The Algerian People's Party (in french, Parti du Peuple Algerien PPA) was a successor organization of the North African Star ( Étoile Nord-Africaine This new party was again dissolved in 1939. Under Vichy, the French state attempts to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews' French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944

On the other hand, independent leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union(Union populaire algérienne) in 1938, while writing in 1943 the Algerian People's Manifest (Manifeste du peuple algérien). Ferhat Abbas ( 24 October, 1899 &ndash 23 December, 1985) ( Algerian: Ferḥat Ɛebbas Arabic: فرحات عباس was an Arrested after the May 8, 1945 Sétif massacre, during which the French Army and Pied Noir mobs killed about 6,000 Algerians ^[8],Abbas founded in 1946 the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA) and was elected as a deputy. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar The Sétif massacre refers to widespread disturbances in and around the Algerian market town of Setif located to the west of Constantine in 1945 Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (in French: Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien) was a political party in colonial Algeria founded in Founded in 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) succeeded Messali Hadj's Algerian People's Party (PPA), while its leaders created an armed wing, the Armée de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Army) to engage in armed struggle against French authority. The National Liberation Front ( Arabic: جبهة التحرير الوطني transliterated: Jabhat al-Taḩrīr al-Waţanī French: Front The Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN ( French, National Liberation Army) was the armed wing of the Nationalist Front de Libération Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc

Beginning of hostilities

In the early morning hours of November 1, 1954, FLN maquisards — (guerrillas), or "terrorists" as they were called by the French — launched attacks in various parts of Algeria against military and civilian targets, in what became known as the Toussaint Rouge. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) They also attacked many French civilians, killing several. From Cairo, the FLN broadcast a proclamation calling on Muslims in Algeria to join in a national struggle for the "restoration of the Algerian state - sovereign, democratic and social - within the framework of the principles of Islam. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. " It was the reaction of Premier Pierre Mendès-France (Radical-Socialist Party), who only a few months before had completed the liquidation of France's empire in Indochina, that set the tone of French policy for the next five years. The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit On November 12, he declared in the National Assembly: "One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic. They have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French [. . . ] Between them and metropolitan France there can be no conceivable secession. " At first, and despite the May 8, 1945 Sétif massacre and pro-Independence struggle before WWII, most Algerians were in favour of a relative status-quo. The Sétif massacre refers to widespread disturbances in and around the Algerian market town of Setif located to the west of Constantine in 1945 While Messali Hadj had radicalized by forming the FLN, Ferhat Abbas maintained a more moderate, electoral strategy. Less than 500 fellaghas (pro-Independence) fighters) could be counted at the beginning of the conflict^[9] The Algerian population radicalized itself in particular because of the Main Rouge (Red Hand) terrorist attacks. ^[9] This terrorist group engaged in anti-colonialist actions in all of the Maghreb region (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria), killing for example Tunisian activist Farhat Hached in 1952. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa.

The FLN

The FLN uprising presented nationalist groups with the question of whether to adopt armed revolt as the main course of action. During the first year of the war, Ferhat Abbas's UDMA, the ulema, and the PCA maintained a friendly neutrality toward the FLN. Ferhat Abbas ( 24 October, 1899 &ndash 23 December, 1985) ( Algerian: Ferḥat Ɛebbas Arabic: فرحات عباس was an Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (in French: Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien) was a political party in colonial Algeria founded in Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several The Algerian Communist Party' (in French: Parti Communiste Algérien) was a Communist party in Algeria. The communists, who had made no move to cooperate in the uprising at the start, later tried to infiltrate the FLN, but FLN leaders publicly repudiated the support of the party. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based In April 1956, Abbas flew to Cairo, where he formally joined the FLN. Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This action brought in many évolués who had supported the UDMA in the past. The AUMA also threw the full weight of its prestige behind the FLN. Bendjelloul and the pro-integrationist moderates had already abandoned their efforts to mediate between the French and the rebels.

After the collapse of the MTLD, Messali Hadj formed the leftist Mouvement National Algérien (MNA), which advocated a policy of violent revolution and total independence similar to that of the FLN. The Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (MTLD name proposed by Maiza was created October 1946 to replace the outlawed Parti du Peuple Algerien (PPA Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d The Mouvement National Algérien (الحركة الوطنية الجزائرية or MNA ( French, Algerian National Movement) was an organization founded A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively The ALN, the military wing of the FLN, subsequently wiped out the MNA guerrilla operation, and Messali Hadj's movement lost what little influence it had had in Algeria. The Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN ( French, National Liberation Army) was the armed wing of the Nationalist Front de Libération Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc However, the MNA gained the support of many Algerian workers in France through the Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens (Union of Algerian Workers). A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming The FLN also established a strong organization in France to oppose the MNA. "Café wars," resulting in nearly 5,000 deaths, were waged in France between the two rebel groups throughout the years of the War of Independence. The Café Wars took place during the Algerian War, as a part of the internal fighting in France between two rival Algerian Nationalist movements

On the political front, the FLN worked to persuade — and to coerce — the Algerian masses to support the aims of the Independence movement through contributions. FLN-influenced labour unions, professional associations, and students' and women's organizations were created to lead opinion in diverse segments of the population but here too violent coercion was widely used. Frantz Fanon, a psychiatrist from Martinique who became the FLN's leading political theorist, provided a sophisticated intellectual justification for the use of violence in achieving national liberation. Frantz Fanon ( July 20, 1925 – December 6, 1961) was a Psychiatrist, philosopher, revolutionary and author from Martinique is an Island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, having a land area of 1128 km² He stated that only through violence could an oppressed people attain human status. From Cairo, Ahmed Ben Bella ordered the liquidation of potential interlocuteurs valables, those independent representatives of the Muslim community acceptable to the French through whom a compromise or reforms within the system might be achieved. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

As the FLN campaign of influence and terror spread through the countryside, many European farmers in the interior (called Pieds-Noirs) sold their holdings and sought refuge in Algiers and other Algerian cities. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest After a series of bloody, random massacres and bombings by Muslim Algerians in several towns and cities, the French Pieds-Noirs and urban French population began to demand that the French government engage in sterner countermeasures, including the proclamation of a state of emergency, capital punishment for political crimes, denunciation of all separatists, and most ominously, a call for 'tit-for-tat' reprisal operations by police, military, and para-military forces. A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors or order government agencies Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. In Criminology, a political Crime is one involving overt acts or omissions (where there is a duty to act which prejudice the interests of the State Separatism refers to the advocacy of a state of cultural ethnic tribal religious racial or gender separation from the larger group often with demands for greater political autonomy Colon vigilante units, whose unauthorized activities were conducted with the passive cooperation of police authorities, carried out ratonnades (literally, rat-hunts; synonymous with Arab-killings) against suspected FLN members of the Muslim community. French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems A vigilante is a person who ignores Due process of law and enacts their own form of Justice in response to a perception of insufficient response by the Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The FLN terror and intimidation campaign gave these hunts strong motivation and starting points.

By 1955 effective political action groups within the Algerian colonial community succeeded in convincing many of the the governors general sent by Paris that the military was not the way to resolve the conflict. A major success was the conversion of Jacques Soustelle, who went to Algeria as governor general in January 1955 determined to restore peace. Jacques Soustelle ( 3 February 1912 &ndash 6 August 1990) was a French anthropologist specializing in pre-Columbian Soustelle, a one-time leftist and by 1955 an ardent Gaullist, began an ambitious reform program (the Soustelle Plan) aimed at improving economic conditions among the Muslim population" (Library of Congress). The Soustelle Plan was a reform program envisioned by Jacques Soustelle, then Governor general of Algeria, for the improvement of several administrative

After the Philippeville massacre

The FLN adopted tactics similar to those of nationalist groups in Asia, and the French did not realize the seriousness of the challenge they faced until 1955, when the FLN moved into urbanized areas. "An important watershed in the War of Independence was the massacre of Pieds-Noirs civilians by the FLN near the town of Philippeville (now known as Skikda) in August 1955. Skikda ( Arabic: سكيكدة) is a city in north eastern Algeria and a port on the Gulf of Stora the ancient Sinus Numidicus Skikda ( Arabic: سكيكدة) is a city in north eastern Algeria and a port on the Gulf of Stora the ancient Sinus Numidicus Before this operation, FLN policy was to attack only military and government-related targets. The commander of the Constantine wilaya/region, however, decided a drastic escalation was needed. Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. The killing by the FLN and its supporters of 123 people, including 71 French,^[10] including old women and babies, shocked Jacques Soustelle into calling for more repressive measures against the rebels. Jacques Soustelle ( 3 February 1912 &ndash 6 August 1990) was a French anthropologist specializing in pre-Columbian The government claimed it killed 1,273 guerrillas in retaliation; according to the FLN and to The Times magazine, 12,000 Algerians were massacred by the armed forces and police, as well as Pieds-Noirs gangs. The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. ^[11] Soustelle's repression was an early cause of the Algerian population's rallying to the FLN. ^[10]After Philippeville, Soustelle declared sterner measures and an all-out war began. In 1956 demonstrations of French Algerians forced the French government to abolish an idea of reform.

Soustelle's successor, Governor General Lacoste, a socialist, abolished the Algerian Assembly. Lacoste saw the assembly, which was dominated by pieds-noirs, as hindering the work of his administration, and he undertook to rule Algeria by decree. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje He favored stepping up French military operations and granted the army exceptional police powers — a concession of dubious legality under French law — to deal with the mounting political violence. At the same time, Lacoste proposed a new administrative structure that would give Algeria a degree of autonomy and a decentralized government. Whilst remaining an integral part of France, Algeria was to be divided into five districts, each of which would have a territorial assembly elected from a single slate of candidates. Deputies representing Algerian ridings were able to delay until 1958 passage of the measure by the National Assembly of France. The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”)

In August/September 1956, the internal leadership of the FLN met to organize a formal policy-making body to synchronize the movement's political and military activities. The highest authority of the FLN was vested in the thirty-four-member National Council of the Algerian Revolution (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne, CNRA), within which the five-man Committee of Coordination and Enforcement (Comité de Coordination et d'Exécution, CCE) formed the executive. The externals, including Ben Bella, knew the conference was taking place but by chance or design on the part of the internals were unable to attend.

Meanwhile, in October 1956, the French Air Force intercepted a Moroccan DC-3 that was flying to Tunis, carrying Ahmed Ben Bella, Mohammed Boudiaf, Mohamed Khider and Hocine Aït Ahmed, and forced it to land in Algiers. The French Air Force ( French: Armée de l'Air (ALA literally Air Army) is the Air force of the French Armed Forces. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President Mohamed Khider ( محمد خضر) (b March 13, 1912, Biskra, Algeria - d Hocine Aït Ahmed (in Kabyle: Ḥusin Ait Ḥmed (b 20 August 1926 in Ain El Hammam, Kabylie) is an Algerian politician Lacoste had the FLN external political leaders arrested and imprisoned for the duration of the war. This action caused the remaining rebel leaders to harden their stance.

France took a more openly hostile view of President Gamal Nasser's material and political assistance to the FLN, which some French analysts believed was the most important element in sustaining continued rebel activity in Algeria. Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President This attitude was a factor in persuading France to participate in the November 1956 British attempt to seize the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, (أزمة السويس - العدوان الثلاثي Crise du canal de Suez מבצע קדש Kadesh

During 1957 support for the FLN weakened as the breach between the internals and externals widened. To halt the drift, the FLN expanded its executive committee to include Abbas, as well as imprisoned political leaders such as Ben Bella. It also convinced communist and Arab members of the United Nations (UN) to put diplomatic pressure on the French government to negotiate a cease-fire. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security

Writer, philosopher and playwright Albert Camus, native of Algiers, often associated with existentialism, tried unsuccessfully to persuade both sides to at least leave civilians alone, writing editorials against the use of torture in Combat newspaper. Albert Camus ( (7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960 was an Algerian born French Author, philosopher, and journalist who won the Nobel prize Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence Combat (French for "fight" was a French Newspaper created during the Second World War. The FLN considered him a fool, and some Pieds Noirs considered him a traitor. Nevertheless, in his speech when he received the Literature Nobel Prize in Oslo, Camus said that when faced with a radical choice he would eventually support his community. This statement made him lose his status among the left-wing intellectuals; when he died in 1960 in a car crash, the official thesis of an ordinary accident (a quick open and shut case) has left more than a few observers doubtful. His widow has claimed that Camus, though discreet, was in fact an ardent supporter of French Algeria in the last years of his life.

Battle of Algiers

To increase international and domestic French attention to their struggle, the FLN decided to bring the conflict to the cities and to call a nationwide general strike. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country The most notable manifestation of the new urban campaign was the Battle of Algiers, which began on September 30, 1956, when three women placed bombs at three sites including the downtown office of Air France. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Air France (formally Société Air France) is one of the world's largest Airlines Air France is based in Paris, France, and is a subsidiary of The FLN carried out an average of 800 shootings and bombings per month through the spring of 1957, resulting in many civilian casualties and inviting a crushing response from the authorities. The 1957 general strike, timed to coincide with, and influence, the UN debate on Algeria, was largely observed by Muslim workers and businesses.

General Jacques Massu was instructed to use whatever methods necessary to restore order in the city. Jacques Émile Massu ( 5 May, 1908 &ndash 26 October, 2002) was a French general who fought in World War II, First Using paratroopers, he broke the strike and then in the succeeding months systematically destroyed the FLN infrastructure in Algiers. But the FLN had succeeded in showing its ability to strike at the heart of French Algeria and in rallying and forcing a mass response to its demands among urban Muslims. Later Massu's troops punished villages that were suspected of harboring rebels by attacking them with mobile troops or aerial bombardment and gathered 2 million of the rural Muslim population into fortified villages under French military control. The publicity given to the brutal methods used by the army to win the Battle of Algiers, including the systematic use of torture, a strong movement control and curfew called quadrillage and where all authority was under the military, created doubt in France about its role in Algeria. This doubt was strongly communicated to France by French sympathisers in Algiers who supported the idea of independence morally, financially and materially. What had been originally thought of as a simple "Pacification" or "public order operation" had turned into a fully fledged colonial war to block the influence of the guerillas and had resulted in the systematic introduction of torture. Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. Colonial war is a form of conflict fought between the foreign occupiers of a Colony and the colony's indigenous population colonists or the military forces of a rival

Guerrilla war

From its origins in 1954 as ragtag maquisards numbering in the hundreds and armed with a motley assortment of hunting rifles and discarded French, German, and American light weapons, the FLN had evolved by 1957 into a disciplined fighting force of nearly 40,000. More than 30,000 were organized along conventional lines in external units that were stationed in Moroccan and Tunisian sanctuaries near the Algerian border, where they served primarily to divert some French manpower from the main theaters of guerrilla activity to guard against infiltration. The brunt of the fighting was borne by the internals in the wilayat; estimates of the numbers of internals range from 6,000 to more than 25,000, with thousands of part-time irregulars. A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually

During 1956 and 1957, the FLN successfully applied hit-and-run tactics in accordance with guerrilla warfare theory, which was at the time being formalized, (in particular by Mao) as "people's war". Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led People's War ( Chinese language: 人民战争 also called protracted people's war, is a military-political strategy invented by Mao Zedong. Whilst some of this was aimed at military targets a significant amount was invested in a terror campaign against those in any way deemed to be supporting or encouraging French authority. This resulted in acts of sadistic torture and the most brutal violence against all including women and children. Specializing in ambushes and night raids and avoiding direct contact with superior French firepower, the internal forces targeted army patrols, military encampments, police posts, and colonial farms, mines, and factories, as well as transportation and communications facilities. Once an engagement was broken off, the guerrillas merged with the population in the countryside, in accordance with Mao's theories. Kidnapping was commonplace, as were the ritual murder and mutilation of captured French military, pied-noirs of both genders and every age, suspected collaborators or traitors. At first, the FLN targeted only Muslim officials of the colonial regime; later, they coerced, maimed (cutting off ears and nose with a douk-douk was a favored torture) or killed village elders, government employees, and even simple peasants who simply refused to support them. Sometimes simply for smoking. Moreover, during the first two years of the conflict, the guerrillas killed about 6,000 Muslims and 1,000 non-Muslims according to a former paratrooper. Paratroopers are Soldiers trained in Parachuting and generally operate as part of an airborne force. ^[12]

Although successful in engendering an atmosphere of fear and uncertainty within both communities in Algeria, the revolutionaries' coercive tactics suggested that they had not yet inspired the bulk of the Muslim people to revolt against French colonial rule. Gradually, however, the FLN gained control in certain sectors of the Aurès, the Kabylie, and other mountainous areas around Constantine and south of Algiers and Oran. The Aurès ( Amazigh: Awras) refers to an Amazigh language-speaking region in East Algeria as well as an extension of the Atlas mountain range This article focuses on the region in Algeria For the ethnic group see Kabyle people. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. In these places, the FLN established a simple but effective— although frequently temporary — military administration that was able to collect/extort taxes and food and to recruit manpower. But it was never able to hold large fixed positions. Algerians all over the country also initiated underground social, judicial, and civil organizations, gradually building their own state.

The loss of competent field commanders both on the battlefield and through defections and political purges created difficulties for the FLN. Moreover, power struggles in the early years of the war split leadership in the wilayat, particularly in the Aurès. Some officers created their own fiefdoms, using units under their command to settle old scores and engage in private wars against military rivals within the FLN.

French counter-insurgency operations

Despite complaints from the military command in Algiers, the French government was reluctant for many months to admit that the Algerian situation was out of control and that what was viewed officially as a pacification operation had developed into a major war. By 1956 France had committed more than 400,000 troops to Algeria. Although the elite colonial infantry airborne units and the Foreign Legion bore the brunt of offensive counterinsurgency combat operations, approximately 170,000 Muslim Algerians also served in the regular French army, most of them volunteers. France also sent air force and naval units to the Algerian theater, including rotary-winged craft (helicopters). In addition to service as a flying ambulances and cargo carrier, French forces utilized the helicopter for the first time in a ground attack role in order to pursue and destroy fleeing FLN guerrilla units. History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. The American military would later use the same helicopter combat methods in Vietnam. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The French also used napalm ^[13], which was depicted for the first time in the 2007 film L'Ennemi intime by Florent Emilio Siri ^[13]. Napalm is the name given to any of a number of Flammable Liquids used in Warfare often jellied Gasoline. Florent Emilio Siri is a French Movie director born in Lorraine.

The French army resumed an important role in local Algerian administration through the Special Administration Section (Section Administrative Spécialisée, SAS), created in 1955. The SAS's mission was to establish contact with the Muslim population and weaken nationalist influence in the rural areas by asserting the "French presence" there. SAS officers — called képis bleus (blue caps) — also recruited and trained bands of loyal Muslim irregulars, known as harkis. Harki (adjective from the Arabic harka, standard Arabic haraka حركة "war party" or "movement" i Armed with shotguns and using guerrilla tactics similar to those of the FLN, the harkis, who eventually numbered about 180,000 volunteers, more than the FLN effectives^[14] were an ideal instrument of counterinsurgency warfare.

Harkis were mostly used in conventional formations, either in all-Algerian units commanded by French officers or in mixed units. Other uses included platoon or smaller size units, attached to French battalions, in a similar way as the Kit Carson Scouts by the US in Vietnam. A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or Squads and containing about 30 to 50 soldiers The Kit Carson Scouts ( Hoi Chanh Vien in Vietnamese, loosely translated as "members who have returned" belonged to a special program created by the A third use was an intelligence gathering role, with some reported minor pseudo-operations in support of their intelligence collection. Intelligence Gathering Disciplines HUMINT Human Intelligence - gathered from a person on the ground ^[15] According to US military Lawrence E. Cline, however, "the extent of these pseudo-operations appears to have been very limited both in time and scope. . . The most widespread use of pseudo type operations was during the 'Battle of Algiers' in 1957. The principal French employer of covert agents in Algiers was the Fifth Bureau, the psychological warfare branch. A covert operation is a Military or political activity carried out in such a way that the parties responsible for the action can be an Open secret, but The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions " The Fifth Bureau "made extensive use of "turned" FLN members", one such network being run by Captain Paul-Alain Leger of the 10th Paras. "Persuaded" to work for the French forces, including by the use of torture and threats against their family, these agents "mingled with FLN cadres. Persuasion is a form of Social influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea attitude or action by rational and symbolic (though not always They planted incriminating forged documents, spread false rumours of treachery and fomented distrust. . . As a frenzy of throat-cutting and disemboweling broke out among confused and suspicious FLN cadres, nationalist slaughtered nationalist from April to September 1957 and did France's work for her". ^[16] But this type of operation involved individual operatives rather than organized covert units.

One organized pseudo-guerrilla unit however was created in December 1956 by the French DST intelligence agency. The Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire (DST (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance was a directorate of the French National Police operating as a domestic The Organization of the French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counter-terrorists had as mission to carry out false flag terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political compromise. ^[17]

But it seemed that, as in Indochina, "the French focused on developing native guerrilla groups that would fight against the FLN," one of whom fought in the Southern Atlas Mountains, equipped by the French Army. ^[18]

The FLN also used pseudo-guerrilla strategies against the French Army on one occasion, with the "Force K," a group of 1,000 Algerians who volunteered to serve in Force K as guerrillas for the French. But most of these members were either already FLN members, or were turned by the FLN, once enlisted. Corpses of purported FLN members displayed by the unit were in fact those of dissidents and members of other Algerian groups killed by the FLN. The French Army finally discovered the war ruse, and tried to hunt down Force K members. However, some 600 managed to escape and join the FLN with weapons and equipment^[19]

Late in 1957, General Raoul Salan, commanding the French army in Algeria, instituted a system of quadrillage, or block warden system, dividing the country into sectors, each permanently garrisoned by troops responsible for suppressing rebel operations in their assigned territory. Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) Raoul Albin Louis Salan ( 10 June 1899 - 3 July 1984) was an officer in the French Army and the fourth French commanding Salan's methods sharply reduced the instances of FLN terrorism but tied down a large number of troops in static defense. Salan also constructed a heavily patrolled system of barriers to limit infiltration from Tunisia and Morocco. The best known of these was the Morice Line (named for the French defense minister, André Morice), which consisted of an electrified fence, barbed wire, and mines over a 320-kilometer stretch of the Tunisian border. The Morice Line is a defensive line constructed in the 1950s It is 200 miles long and was built to prevent Tunisian guerrillas from entering the French Colony of Algeria

The French military command ruthlessly applied the principle of collective responsibility to villages suspected of sheltering, supplying, or in any way cooperating with the guerrillas. Villages that could not be reached by mobile units were subject to aerial bombardment. FLN Guerrillas that fled to caves or other remote hiding places were tracked and hunted down. In one episode, FLN guerrillas who refused to surrender and withdraw from a cave complex were dealt with by French Foreign Legion Pioneer troops, who, lacking flamethrowers or explosives, simply bricked up each cave, leaving the residents to die of suffocation. ^[12]

Finding it impossible to protect all of Algeria's remote farms and villages, the French government also initiated a program of concentrating large segments of the rural population, including whole villages, in camps under military supervision to prevent them from voluntarily aiding the rebels — or to protect them from FLN extortion. In the three years (1957–60) during which the regroupement program was followed, more than 2 million Algerians were removed from their villages, mostly in the mountainous areas, and resettled in the plains, where many found it impossible to re-establish their accustomed economic or social situations. Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Living conditions in the fortified villages were poor. Hundreds of empty villages were devastated, and in hundreds of others, orchards and croplands not previously burned by French troops went to seed for lack of care. These population transfers were effective in denying the use of remote villages to FLN guerrillas who had used them as a source of rations and manpower, but also caused significant resentment on the part of the displaced villagers. Population transfer is the movement of a large group of people from one region to another by state policy or international authority most frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion The disruptive social and economic effects of this massive relocation continued to be felt a generation later.

The French army shifted its tactics at the end of 1958 from dependence on quadrillage (block warden system) to the use of mobile forces deployed on massive search-and-destroy missions against FLN strongholds. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Search and Destroy, or Seek and Destroy, or Zippo or even simply S&D, refers to a military Strategy that became a notorious component of the Within the next year, Salan's successor, General Maurice Challe, appeared to have suppressed major rebel resistance. Maurice Challe ( 5 September 1905 - 18 January 1979) was a French general during the Algerian War, one of four generals But political developments had already overtaken the French army's successes.

Fall of the Fourth Republic

Main article: May 1958 crisis

Recurrent cabinet crises focused attention on the inherent instability of the French Fourth Republic and increased the misgivings of the army and of the pied-noirs that the security of Algeria was being undermined by party politics. The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the Army commanders chafed at what they took to be inadequate and incompetent political initiatives by the government in support of military efforts to end the rebellion. The feeling was widespread that another debacle like that of Indochina in 1954 was in the offing and that the government would order another precipitate pullout and sacrifice French honor to political expediency. Many saw in de Gaulle, who had not held office since 1946, the only public figure capable of rallying the nation and giving direction to the French government.

After his tour as governor general, Soustelle had returned to France to organize support for de Gaulle's return to power, while retaining close ties to the army and the pied-noirs. By early 1958, he had organized a coup d'état, bringing together dissident army officers and pied-noirs with sympathetic Gaullists. An army junta under General Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of May 13, thereafter known as the May 1958 crisis. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. General Salan assumed leadership of a Committee of Public Safety formed to replace the civil authority and pressed the junta's demands that de Gaulle be named by French president René Coty to head a government of national union invested with extraordinary powers to prevent the "abandonment of Algeria. René Jules Gustave Coty (20 March 1882 22 November 1962 was President of France from 1954 to 1959 "

On May 24, French paratroopers from the Algerian corps landed on Corsica, taking the French island in a bloodless action, "Operation Corse". Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Subsequently, preparations were made in Algeria for "Operation Resurrection," which had as objectives the seizure of Paris and the removal of the French government. Resurrection was to be implemented if one of three scenarios occurred: if de Gaulle was not approved as leader of France by Parliament; if de Gaulle asked for military assistance to take power, or if it seemed that communist forces were making any move to take power in France. De Gaulle was approved by the French Parliament on May 29, by 329 votes against 224, fifteen hours before the projected launch of Resurrection. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the This indicated that the French Fourth Republic by 1958 no longer had any support to the French army in Algeria, and was at its mercy even in civilian political matters. This decisive shift in the balance of power in civil-military relations in France in 1958 and the threat of force was the main immediate factor in the return of de Gaulle to power in France.

De Gaulle

Many people, regardless of citizenship, greeted Charles de Gaulle's return to power as the breakthrough needed to end the hostilities. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French On his June 4 trip to Algeria, de Gaulle calculatedly made an ambiguous and broad emotional appeal to all the inhabitants, declaring "Je vous ai compris" ("I have understood you"). Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China. De Gaulle raised the hopes of the pied-noir and the professional military, disaffected by the indecisiveness of previous governments, with his exclamation of "Vive l'Algérie française" ("Long live French Algeria") to cheering crowds in Mostaganem. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje Algérie française was a slogan used about 1960 by those French people who wanted to keep Algeria ruled by France. At the same time, he proposed economic, social, and political reforms to improve the situation of the Muslims. Nonetheless, de Gaulle later admitted to having harbored deep pessimism about the outcome of the Algerian situation even then. Meanwhile, he looked for a "third force" among the population of Algeria, uncontaminated by the FLN or the "ultras" — colon extremists — through whom a solution might be found.

De Gaulle immediately appointed a committee to draft a new constitution for France's Fifth Republic, which would be declared early the next year, with which Algeria would be associated but of which it would not form an integral part. All Muslims, including women, were registered for the first time on electoral rolls to participate in a referendum to be held on the new constitution in September 1958.

De Gaulle's initiative threatened the FLN with the prospect of losing the support of the growing numbers of Muslims who were tired of the war and had never been more than lukewarm in their commitment to a totally independent Algeria. In reaction, the FLN set up the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne, GPRA), a government-in-exile headed by Abbas and based in Tunis. The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic ( French, Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne, GPRA) was the Government-in-exile The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic ( French, Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne, GPRA) was the Government-in-exile The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic ( French, Gouvernement Provisoire de la République Algérienne, GPRA) was the Government-in-exile Before the referendum, Abbas lobbied for international support for the GPRA, which was quickly recognized by Morocco, Tunisia, and several other Arab countries, by a number of Asian and African states, and by the Soviet Union and other Eastern European states. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

ALN commandos committed numerous acts of sabotage in France in August, and the FLN mounted a desperate campaign of terror in Algeria to intimidate Muslims into boycotting the referendum. A boycott is a form of Consumer activism involving the act of voluntarily abstaining from using buying or dealing with someone or some other organization as an expression of Despite threats of reprisal, however, 80 percent of the Muslim electorate turned out to vote in September, and of these 96 percent approved the constitution. In February 1959, de Gaulle was elected president of the new Fifth Republic. He visited Constantine in October to announce a program to end the war and create an Algeria closely linked to France. De Gaulle's call on the rebel leaders to end hostilities and to participate in elections was met with adamant refusal. "The problem of a cease-fire in Algeria is not simply a military problem," said the GPRA's Abbas. "It is essentially political, and negotiation must cover the whole question of Algeria. " Secret discussions that had been underway were broken off.

In 1958–59 the French army had won military control in Algeria and was the closest it would be to victory. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In late July 1959, during Operation Jumelles Colonel Bigeard — whose elite paratrooper unit fought at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 — told journalist Jean Lartéguy (source):

“

"We are not making war for ourselves, not making a colonialist war, Bigeard wears no shirt (he shows his opened uniform) as do my officers. Operation Jumelles (Operation Binoculars was a Military operation which was part of the Algerian War‎ in the Tizi Ouzou Province, Algeria. Marcel Bigeard (born 14 February, 1916) is a French military officer who fought in World War II, Indochina and Algeria We are fighting right here right now for them, for the evolution, to see the evolution of these people and this war is for them. We are defending their freedom as we are, in my opinion, defending the West's freedom. We are here ambassadors, Crusaders, who are hanging on in order to still be able to talk and to be able to speak for. " Col. Bigeard (July 1959)

”

During that period in France, however, opposition to the conflict was growing among many segments of the population, notably the leftists, with the pro-USSR French Communist Party — then one of the country's strongest political forces — supporting the Algerian Revolution. The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of Thousands of relatives of conscripts and reserve soldiers suffered loss and pain; revelations of torture and the indiscriminate brutality the army visited on the Muslim population prompted widespread revulsion; and a significant constituency supported the principle of national liberation. International pressure was also building on France to grant Algeria independence. Annually since 1955 the UN General Assembly had considered the Algerian question, and the FLN position was gaining support. Membership For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly see General Assembly members France's seeming intransigence in settling a colonial war that tied down half the manpower of its armed forces was also a source of concern to its NATO allies. The North Atlantic Treaty In a September 1959 statement, de Gaulle dramatically reversed his stand and uttered the words "self-determination," which he envisioned as leading to majority rule in an Algeria formally associated with France. In Tunis, Abbas acknowledged that de Gaulle's statement might be accepted as a basis for settlement, but the French government refused to recognize the GPRA as the representative of Algeria's Muslim community.

The barricades week

Convinced Gaulle had betrayed them, some units of European volunteers (Unités Territoriales) in Algiers led by student leaders Pierre Lagaillarde and Jean-Jacques Susini, cafe owner Joseph Ortiz, lawyer Jean-Baptiste Biaggi. Pierre Lagaillarde ( Courbevoie, 15 May 1931) was French politician and a founder of the Organisation armée secrète (OAS Jean-Jacques Susini (* 30 July 1933 Algiers ( Algeria) cofounder of Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS . . staged an insurrection in the Algerian capital starting on January 24, 1960 and known in France as La semaine des barricades ("the barricades week"). Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The ultras incorrectly believed that they would be supported by General Massu. Jacques Émile Massu ( 5 May, 1908 &ndash 26 October, 2002) was a French general who fought in World War II, First The insurrection order was given by Colonel Jean Garde of the Ve Bureau militaire. As the army, police and supporters stood by, civilians pied-noirs threw up barricades in the streets and seized government buildings. General Maurice Challe, responsible of the Army in Algeria, declared Algiers under siege, but forbade the troops to open up fire on the insurgees. Maurice Challe ( 5 September 1905 - 18 January 1979) was a French general during the Algerian War, one of four generals Twenty rioters were killed during a firing in Laferrière Boulevard. Eight arrest warrants were issued in Paris against the initiators of the insurrection. An arrest warrant is a warrant issued by and on behalf of the state which authorizes the Arrest and detention of an individual MP Jean-Marie Le Pen, who called for the barricades to be extended to Paris, and theorician Georges Sauge were then placed under custody. Jean-Marie Le Pen (born June 20, 1928, La Trinité-sur-Mer, Brittany, France) is a French far-right Nationalist ^[20]

In Paris, de Gaulle called on the evening of January 29, 1960 on the army to remain loyal and rallied popular support for his Algerian policy in a televised address:

I took, in the name of France, the following decision: the Algerians will have the free choice of their destiny. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. When, in one way or another - by ceasefire or by complete crushing of the rebels - we will have put an end to the fighting, when, after a prolonged period of appeasement, the populations will have taken consciousness of the stakes and, thanks to us, realised the necessary progress in political, economic, social, educational, etc. , domains, then it will be the Algerians who will tell us what they want to be. . . French of Algeria (Français d'Algérie), how can you listen to the liars and the conspirators who tell you that by granting free choice to the Algerians, France and de Gaulle want to abandon you, retreat from Algeria and deliver you to the rebellion?. . . I say to all of our soldiers: your mission comprises neither equivocation, nor interpretation. You have to liquidate the rebellious force which want to oust France out of Algeria and impose on this country its dictatorship of misery and sterility. . . Finally, I address myself to France. Eh bien! my dear and old country, here we face together, once again, a serious ordeal. In virtu of the mandate that the people has given me and of the national legitimacy which I incarn since twenty years, I ask to everyone to support me whatever happens. ^[21]

Most of the army heeded his call, and the siege of Algiers ended on February 1 with Lagaillarde surrendering to General Challe commanding the French army in Algeria corps. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen The loss of many ultra leaders who were imprisoned or transferred to other areas did not deter the French Algeria militants. Sent to prison in Paris, Lagaillarde evaded to Spain while left on parole. There with another French army officer, Raoul Salan, who had entered clandestinity, and Jean-Jacques Susini, he created the O.A.S. (Organisation Armée Secrète, lit. Raoul Albin Louis Salan ( 10 June 1899 - 3 July 1984) was an officer in the French Army and the fourth French commanding The ClanDestine (also known simply as ClanDestine) is a Comic book series about the Destines a secret family of long-lived Superhuman The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit Secret Army Organization) on December 3, 1960 with the purpose to follow-up the fight for the French Algeria. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Highly organized and well-armed the OAS stepped up its terrorist activities, which were directed against both Algerians and pro-government French citizens, as the move toward negotiated settlement of the war and self-determination gained momentum. To the FLN rebellion against France were added civil wars between extremists in the two communities and between the ultras and the French government in Algeria.

Beside Pierre Lagaillarde, Jean-Baptiste Biaggi was also imprisoned, while Alain de Sérigny got arrested, and Joseph Ortiz's FNF dissolved, as well as General Lionel Chassin's MP13. Families Need Fathers ( FNF) is a registered UK charity, founded in 1974. De Gaulle also modified the government, excluding Jacques Soustelle, believed to be too pro-French Algeria, and granting the Minister of Information to Louis Terrenoire, who quit the RTF (French broadcasting TV). Jacques Soustelle ( 3 February 1912 &ndash 6 August 1990) was a French anthropologist specializing in pre-Columbian Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française ( RTF – French Radio and Television Broadcasting) was the French national Public broadcasting company Pierre Messmer, who had been member of the Foreign Legion, is named Minister of Defense, and dissolved the Fifth Bureau, the psychological warfare branch which had ordered the rebellion. Pierre Joseph Auguste Messmer (20 March 1916 29 August 2007 was a French Gaullist politician The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions These units had theorized the principles of "counter-revolutionary war", including the use of torture. See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat During the Indochina War (1947-54), officers such as Roger Trinquier and Lionel-Max Chassin inspired themselves from Mao's strategic doctrine, and considered that to convince the population to support the fight, bodies had to be modeled in order to affect the mind. The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, Roger Trinquier (20 March 1908 - 11 January 1986 was a French Army officer and theorist of Counter-insurgency warfare Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led Crowd psychology, or social facilitation theory, is a branch of Social psychology. The 5e Bureaux were organized by Jean Ousset, French representant of the Opus Dei, under the order of Permanent Secretary General of the National Defense (SGPDN) Geoffroy Chodron de Courcel. Jean Ousset ( 28 July 1914 &ndash 20 April 1994) was a French ideologist of National Catholicism born in Porto. Opus Dei, formally known as The Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei, is a part of the Roman Catholic Church that teaches the Catholic belief that everyone ^[20] The officers were initially formed in the Centre d'instruction et de préparation à la contre-guérilla (Arzew). Jacques Chaban-Delmas added to that the Centre d'entraînement à la guerre subversive Jeanne-d'Arc (Center of Training to Subversive War Jeanne-d'Arc) in Philippeville, Algeria, directed by Colonel Marcel Bigeard. Jacques Chaban-Delmas (7 March 1915&ndash10 November 2000 was a French Gaullist politician Philippeville is a Walloon municipality located in Belgium in the province of Namur. Marcel Bigeard (born 14 February, 1916) is a French military officer who fought in World War II, Indochina and Algeria According to the Voltaire Network, the Catholic stay-behind Georges Sauge animated conferences there, and one could read on the walls of the center the following maxim: "This Army must be fanatic, despising luxury, animated by the spirit of the Crusades"^[22] Pierre Messmer hence dissolved structures which had turned themselves against de Gaulle, leaving the "revolutionary war" to the exclusive responsibility of Gaullist General André Beauffre. The Réseau Voltaire (Voltaire Network is an international non-profit organisation based in Paris. In a stay-behind operation a country places secret operatives or organisations in its own territory for use in the event that the territory is overrun by an enemy The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents ^[20]

The French army officers uprising can be understood as following, some officers, most notably from the paratroopers corps, felt betrayed by the government for the second time after Indochina (1947-1954). The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, In some aspects the Dien Bien Phu garrison was sacrificed with no metropolitan support, order was given to commanding officer General de Castries to "let the affair die of its own, in serenity" ("laissez mourrir l'affaire d'elle même en sérénité"^[23]). For the 1992 film see Dien Bien Phu (film. For the 1954 battle see Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Christian Marie Ferdinand de la Croix de Castries ( 11 August 1902 - 29 July 1991) was the French commander at the Battle of Dien

The opposition of the MNEF student trade-union to the participation of the conscripts to the war led to a scission in May 1960, with the creation of the Fédération des étudiants nationalistes (FEN, Federation of Nationalist Students) around Dominique Venner, a former member of Jeune Nation and of MP-13, François d'Orcival and Alain de Benoist, who would theorize in the 1980s the "New Right" movement. Jeune Nation was a French nationalist movement founded by Albert Heuclin, and with members including Halles, Jean Marot, Jacques Wagner Alain de Benoist (born 11 December 1943) is a French academic philosopher a founder of the Nouvelle Droite (New Right and head New Right is used in several countries as a descriptive term for various forms of conservative right-wing or self-proclaimed dissident oppositional movements and groups that emerged The FEN then published the Manifeste de la classe 60.

A Front national pour l'Algérie française (FNAF, National Front for French Algeria) was created in June 1960 in Paris, gathering around former De Gaulle's Secretary Jacques Soustelle Claude Dumont, Georges Sauge, Yvon Chautard, Jean-Louis Tixier Vignancourt (who would present himself as far-right candidate in the 1965 presidential election), Jacques Isorni, Victor Barthélémy, François Brigneau and Jean-Marie Le Pen. Jacques Soustelle ( 3 February 1912 &ndash 6 August 1990) was a French anthropologist specializing in pre-Columbian The 1965 French presidential election was the first presidential election by direct universal suffrage of the French Fifth Republic. Another ultra rebellion occurred in December 1960, which led de Gaulle to dissolve the FNAF.

After the publication of the Manifeste des 121 against the use of torture and the war,^[24] the opponents to the war created the Rassemblement de la gauche démocratique, which included the SFIO socialist party, the Radical-Socialist Party, FO trade union, CFTC trade-union, FEN trade-union, etc. The Manifesto of the 121 ( French: Manifeste des 121, full title Déclaration sur le droit à l’insoumission dans la guerre d’Algérie or Declaration The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The General Confederation of Labor - Workers' Force ( French: , which supported de Gaulle against the ultras. De Gaulle then convoked a referendum on the independence of Algeria on January 8, 1961, which gave 75% of "yes" in metropolitan France, but only 40% in Algeria. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

End of the war

Main articles: Algiers putsch of 1961 and Evian agreements

The "generals' putsch" in April 1961, aimed at cancelling Michel Debré's government's secret peace negotiations with the FLN, marked the turning point in the official attitude toward the Algerian war. The Algiers putsch (Putsch d'Alger or fr ''Coup d'État d'Alger'' also known as the Generals' putsch ( Putsch des Généraux) took place from the afternoon Michel Debré (15 January 1912 2 August 1996 was a French Gaullist politician De Gaulle was now prepared to abandon the pieds-noirs, the group that no previous French government was willing to write off. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French The army had been discredited by the putsch and kept a low profile politically throughout the rest of France's involvement with Algeria. Talks with the FLN reopened at Evian in May 1961; after several false starts, the French government decreed that a ceasefire would take effect on March 19, 1962. The National Liberation Front ( Arabic: جبهة التحرير الوطني transliterated: Jabhat al-Taḩrīr al-Waţanī French: Front Évian-les-Bains or Évian is a commune of France, in the northern part of the Haute-Savoie département, on the shores of Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In their final form, the Evian Accords allowed the pieds-noirs equal legal protection with Algerians over a three year period. The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the These rights included respect for property, participation in public affairs, and a full range of civil and cultural rights. At the end of that period, however, all Algerian residents would be obliged to become Algerian citizens or be classified as aliens with the attendant loss of rights. The French electorate approved the Evian Accords by an overwhelming 91 percent vote in a referendum held in June 1962.

During the three months between the cease-fire and the French referendum on Algeria, the OAS (Organisation armée secrète) unleashed a new terrorist campaign. The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit The OAS sought to provoke a major breach in the ceasefire by the FLN but the terrorism now was aimed also against the French army and police enforcing the accords as well as against Muslims. It was the most wanton carnage that Algeria had witnessed in eight years of savage warfare. OAS operatives set off an average of 120 bombs per day in March, with targets including hospitals and schools. Ultimately, the terrorism failed in its objectives, and the OAS and the FLN concluded a truce on June 17, 1962. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the same month, more than 350,000 Pied-noirs left Algeria. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje

On July 1, 1962, some 6 million of a total Algerian electorate of 6. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 5 million cast their ballots in the referendum on independence. The vote was nearly unanimous. De Gaulle pronounced Algeria an independent country on July 3. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. The Provisional Executive, however, proclaimed July 5, the 132nd anniversary of the French entry into Algeria, as the day of national independence. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England.

Despite the Evian Accords guarantees towards the French citizens, after the end of June civilians became the target of systematic FLN attacks. It quickly became apparent to Europeans that the new government would not ensure their safety or enforce their rights. The Oran massacre of 1962, four days after the vote, is the main example of deliberate strategy of killing to terrorize pieds-noirs and push them to leave. The Oran massacre of 1962 was a massacre of civilians in Oran, Algeria on July 5, 1962, at the end of the Algerian War (1954–62 These tactics proved effective. Summer 1962 saw a rush to France. Within a year, 1. 4 million refugees, including almost the entire Jewish community and some pro-French Muslims, had joined the exodus to France. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The vast majority left, as detailed below.

Pieds-Noirs' and Harkis' exodus

Pieds-Noirs (including Sephardi Jews) and Harkis accounted for 13% of the total population of Algeria in 1962. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Harki (adjective from the Arabic harka, standard Arabic haraka حركة "war party" or "movement" i For the sake of clarity, each group's exodus is described separately here, although their fate shared many common elements.

Pieds-noirs

Pied-noir (literally "black foot") is a term used to name the European-descended population (mostly Catholic) that had been in Algeria for generations; it is sometimes used to include the Sephardi Jewish population as well, which likewise emigrated after 1962. The Europeans had arrived as immigrants from all over the western Mediterranean (particularly France, Spain, and Malta), starting in 1830. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display The Jews had arrived in several waves, some coming in Roman times while most had arrived as refugees from the Spanish Inquisition, and had largely embraced French citizenship after the decret Crémieux in 1871. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain Adolphe Crémieux ( April 30, 1796 &ndash February 10, 1880) was a French - Jewish lawyer and statesman and a staunch defender In 1959, the pieds-noirs numbered 1,025,000 (85% of European descent, and 15% of Sephardi Jewish descent), and accounted for 10. 4% of the total population of Algeria. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 of them fled or left the country, the first third prior to the referendum, in the most massive relocation of population to Europe since the Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including A motto used in the FLN propaganda designating the Pied-noirs community was "Suitcase or coffin" ("La valise ou le cercueil").

The French government claimed to not have anticipated that such a massive number would leave; at the most it said it estimated that perhaps 200-300,000 might choose to go to metropolitan France temporarily. Nothing was planned for their move to France, and many had to sleep in streets or abandoned farms on their arrival. A minority of departing pieds-noirs, including soldiers, destroyed their possessions before departure, applying scorched earth policy in a sign of protestation and as a desperate symbolic try to leave no trace of over a century of European presence, but the vast majority of their goods and houses were left intact and abandoned to Algerians. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between Scenes of thousands of panicked people camping for weeks on the docks of Algerian harbors waiting for a space on a boat to France were common from April to August 1962. About 100,000 pieds-noirs chose to remain, but most of those gradually left over the 1960s and 1970s, primarily due to residual hostility against them, including machine-gunning of public places in Oran. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. ^[25]

Harkis

The so-called Harkis, from the Arabic word harki (soldier), were the Muslim indigenous Algerians (as opposed to European-descended or Sephardi Jews) who fought as auxiliaries on the side of the French army. Harki (adjective from the Arabic harka, standard Arabic haraka حركة "war party" or "movement" i Some of these were veterans of the Free French Forces who participated in the liberation of France during World War II or in the Indochina War. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, The term also came to include civilian indigenous Algerians who supported a French Algeria. According to French government figures, there were 236,000 Algerian Muslims serving in the French Army in 1962, either in regular units (Spahis and Tirailleurs) or as irregulars (harkis and moghaznis). Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia Tirailleur literally means a Sharpshooter in French from tir - target Some estimates suggest that, with their families, the indigenous Muslim loyalists may have numbered as many as 1 million, but 400,000 is more commonly cited.

In 1962, around 91,000 Harkis fled or sailed to France, despite French policy against this. Pierre Messmer, minister of the armies and Louis Joxe, minister for Algerian affairs gave orders to this effect. The Harkis were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture, a climax being reached at the Oran massacre of 1962. The National Liberation Front ( Arabic: جبهة التحرير الوطني transliterated: Jabhat al-Taḩrīr al-Waţanī French: Front The Oran massacre of 1962 was a massacre of civilians in Oran, Algeria on July 5, 1962, at the end of the Algerian War (1954–62 The abandonment of the "Harkis" both in terms of non-recognition of those who died defending a French Algeria and the neglect of those who escaped to France, remains an issue that France has not fully resolved — although the government of Jacques Chirac made efforts to give recognition to the suffering of these former allies.

Death toll

The FLN estimated in 1962 that nearly eight years of revolution had cost 1. 5 million dead from war-related causes. Some other Algerian sources later put the figure at approximately 1 million dead, while French officials estimated it at 350,000. French military authorities listed their losses at nearly 18,000 dead (6,000 from non-combat-related causes) and 65,000 wounded. European-descended civilian casualties exceeded 10,000 (including 3,000 dead) in 42,000 recorded terrorist incidents. According to French figures, security forces killed 141,000 rebel combatants, and more than 12,000 Algerians died in internal FLN purges during the war. An additional 5,000 died in the "café wars" in France between the FLN and rival Algerian groups. French sources also estimated that 70,000 Muslim civilians were killed, or abducted and presumed killed, by the FLN.

Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, consider the actual figure of war dead to be far higher than the original FLN and official French estimates, but below the 1 million adopted by the Algerian government. Sir Alistair Allan Horne (born November 9, 1925) is a British Historian of modern France. Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron ( March 14, 1905 &mdash October 17, 1983) was a French Philosopher, Sociologist and Horne has estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. Uncounted thousands of Muslim civilians lost their lives in French army ratissages, bombing raids, and vigilante reprisals. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians, who were forced to relocate in French camps or to flee to Morocco, Tunisia, and into the Algerian hinterland, where many thousands died of starvation, disease, and exposure. In addition large numbers of pro-French Muslims were murdered when the FLN settled accounts after independence.

Lasting effects in Algerian politics

Main article: History of Algeria since 1962

After Algeria's independence was recognised, Ahmed Ben Bella quickly became more popular, and thereby more powerful. History of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, 1962&ndashpresent In preparation for independence the CNRA (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President In June 1962, he challenged the leadership of Premier Benyoucef Ben Khedda; this led to several disputes among his rivals in the FLN, which were quickly suppressed by Ben Bella's rapidly growing support, most notably within the armed forces. Benyoucef Benkhedda ( بن يوسف بن خدة) ( February 23, 1920 – February 4, 2003) was an Algerian politician By September, Bella was in control of Algeria by all but name, and was elected as premier in a one-sided election on 20 September, and was recognised by the United States on September 29. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire. Algeria was admitted as the 109th member of the United Nations on 8 October 1962. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Events 314 - Roman Emperor Licinius is defeated by his colleague Constantine I at the Battle of Cibalae, and loses Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Afterwards, Ben Bella declared that Algeria would follow a neutral course in world politics; within a week he met with U.S. President John F. Kennedy requesting more aid for Algeria, with Fidel Castro, expressing approval of Castro's demands for the abandonment of Guantanamo Bay and returned to Algeria requesting that France withdraw from its bases there. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until Guantánamo Bay ( Spanish Bahía de Guantánamo) is a bay located in Guantánamo Province at the south-eastern end of Cuba In November, Ben Bella's government banned the party, providing that the only party allowed to overtly function was the FLN. Shortly thereafter in 1965 Bella was deposed and placed under house arrest (and later exiled) by Houari Boumédiènne, who served as president until his death in 1978. Houari Boumédienne (original name Mohamed Ben Brahim Boukharouba) ( August 23, 1932 – December 27, 1978) (هواري بومدين Year 1978 ( MCMLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar) Algeria remained stable, though in a one-party state, until violent civil war broke out in the 1990s. A single-party state, one-party system or single-party system is a type of Party system Government in which a single Political party The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999

For Algerians of many political factions, the legacy of their War of Independence acted to legitimise and virtually sanctify the unrestricted use of force in achieving a goal deemed to be justified. Once invoked against foreign colonialists, the same principle could be turned with relative ease also against fellow Algerians. The determination of the French to hold on to Algeria and of the FLN to overthrow that colonial rule, and the ruthlessness exhibited by both sides in that struggle, were to be mirrored thirty years later by the determination of the FLN government to hold on to power and of the Islamist opposition to overthrow that rule, and the brutal struggle which ensued.

Torture

Main article: Torture during the Algerian War

Torture was a frequent process in use since the beginning of the colonization of Algeria, which started in 1830. The French Armed Forces made a systematic and indiscriminate use of torture during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62 creating a public controversy which is far from French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems Claude Bourdet had denounced these acts on December 6, 1951 in L'Observateur: "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria?" Torture had also been used -on both sides- during the First Indochina War (1946-54) and in all the French colonies^[26][27][28]

General Paul Aussaresses admitted in 2000 the use of torture during the war and justified it. Claude Bourdet, son of the dramatic author Édouard Bourdet was a writer journalist polemist and a militant French politician who was born in 1909 and died in 1996 in Paris The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world Paul Aussaresses (b 7 November 1918 in Saint-Paul-Cap-de-Joux, Tarn) is a retired French Army Brigadier General, who fought Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally He also recognized the assassination of lawyer Ali Boumendjel and head of FLN in Algiers, Larbi Ben M'Hidi, which had been disguised as "suicides". Mohammed Larbi Ben M'hidi (1923&ndash1957 ( محمد العربي بن مهيدي) was a prominent Algerian leader during the war of independence. ^[29]

General Marcel Bigeard, who had denied it for forty years, finally also admitted that it had been used, although he claimed he personally had not engaged in torture. Marcel Bigeard (born 14 February, 1916) is a French military officer who fought in World War II, Indochina and Algeria Bigeard, who qualified FLN activists as "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil". ^[30][31] To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses' revelations, and before his death pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war. Jacques Émile Massu ( 5 May, 1908 &ndash 26 October, 2002) was a French general who fought in World War II, First ^[32]

Bigeard's justification of torture has been criticized by various persons, among whom Joseph Doré, archbishop of Strasbourg, and Marc Lienhard, president of the Lutherian Church of Augsbourg confession in Alsace-Lorraine. ^[33]

In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in Sidi Ferruch, known as a torture center and from where many Algerians never left alive. Sidi Ferruch is a coastal town in Algiers Province, Algeria. It is located within the territory of the municipality of Staouéli, on a Presque-isle Bigeard qualified Louisette Ighilahriz's revelations, published in Le Monde on June 20, 2000, as "lies". An ALN activist, Louisette Ighilahriz had been tortured by General Massu. She herself called Bigeard a "liar", and criticized him for continuing to deny the use of torture 40 years later. ^[34][35] However, since General Massu's revelations, Bigeard has now admitted the use of torture, although he denies having personally used it. He then declared: "You are striking the heart of an 84 years-old man. " Bigeard also recognized that Larbi Ben M’Hidi had been assassinated, and his death disguised as a "suicide". Mohammed Larbi Ben M'hidi (1923&ndash1957 ( محمد العربي بن مهيدي) was a prominent Algerian leader during the war of independence. Paul Teitgen, prefect of Algiers, also revealed that Bigeard's troop threw Algerians in the sea from helicopters, a tactic later theorized in Argentina by Admiral Luis Maria Mendia, as the infamous "death flights. Luis María Mendía (1925- May 2007 was the Argentine Chief of Naval Operations in 1976-77 with the rank of Vice-admiral. "^[36]

"French school"

Counter-insurgency tactics developed during the war were used afterward in other contexts, including the Argentine "Dirty War" in the 1970s. See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat This article refers to the Argentine Dirty War for the British film of the same name see Dirty War (film. Journalist Marie-Monique Robin wrote a book alleging that French secret agents had taught Argentine intelligence agents counter-insurgency tactics, including the systemic use of torture, block warden system, etc, all techniques employed during the 1957 Battle of Algiers. Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist List of Intelligence agencies of France:;DGSE General Directorate for External Security - Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional ( National Intelligence System, SIN is the official denomination of the Argentine national intelligence community The film itself on The Battle of Algiers has been screened and seen by many militaries from different nations afterwards. The Battle of Algiers (La battaglia di Algeri is a 1966 Black-and-white film by Gillo Pontecorvo based on events during the 1954-1962 Algerian She found in the Quai d'Orsay, head of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the document proving that a secret military agreement tied France to Argentina from 1959 until 1981, date of the election of President François Mitterrand. For the Cuban cigar brand see Quai d'Orsay (cigar brand. The Quai d'Orsay is a Quai in the VIIe arrondissement François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand ( 26 October 1916 8 January 1996 served as President of France from 1981 to 1995 elected as representative of the Socialist General Bigeard's troops threw Algerians from helicopters into the sea: this form of "disappearance" by death flights (their victims were named "Bigeard's shrimps", or crevettes Bigeard) was later theorized by Argentine Admiral Luis Maria Mendia in the infamous "death flights". A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. The so-called death flights (Spanish vuelos de la muerte) were a form of Forced disappearance routinely practiced during the Argentine " Dirty War," Luis María Mendía (1925- May 2007 was the Argentine Chief of Naval Operations in 1976-77 with the rank of Vice-admiral.

Historiography of the war and of colonialism

Although the opening of the archives after a 30 years lock-up has enabled some new historical research on the war, including Jean-Charles Jauffret's book titled La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents (The Algerian War according to the documents), many remain unaccessible. ^[37] This contrary to the engagement of Prime minister Lionel Jospin's (Socialist Party, PS) engagement on July 27, 1997. Lionel Jospin (born 12 July 1937 is a French politician who served as Prime Minister of France, during the third " cohabitation " The Socialist Party ( Parti Socialiste, PS is the largest left-wing political party in France. The recognition in 1999 by the National Assembly, in which the PS had obtained a majority during the 1997 legislative elections, permitted the Algerian War to, at last, enter the syllabus of French school. French legislative election took place in May 25 and June 1 1997 to elect the 11th National Assembly of the Fifth Republic. The October 17, 1961 massacre in Paris has only begun to emerge in the nation's memory, although access to the archives remains strongly restricted. The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 The French state, who finally recognized 40 deaths, is a far way from giving free access to the archives (there is no such law as the US Freedom of Information Act in France). However, it has been proved, including with David Assouline's limited access to the Paris archives (granted by Socialist Minister of Culture Catherine Trautmann) that at least 70 Algerians died during these events — and 90 persons by the second half of October 1961. The Minister of Culture is in the Government of France, the cabinet member in charge of national museums and monuments promoting and protecting the arts (visual Mme Catherine Trautmann (born on 15 January 1951 in Strasbourg)is a former Minister of Culture of France and now Member of the ^[38]

The Algerian War remains a contentious event today. According to historian Benjamin Stora, doctor in history and sociology and teacher at Paris VII, and one of the leading historians of the Algerian war, memories concerning the war remain fragmented with no common ground to speak on:

"There is no such thing as a History of the Algerian War, there is just a multitude of histories and personal paths through it. Paris Diderot University ( also known as Université Paris 7 - Denis Diderot) is a University in Paris, France. Everyone involved considers that they lived through it in their own way, and any attempt to take in the Algerian War globally is immediately thrown out by the protagonists. "^[39]

Not to speak about Franco-Algerian history: although Benjamin Stora has counted 3,000 works in French on the Algerian war, there still is not one single work made in cooperation between a French and an Algerian citizen. Although we can "no longer talk about a 'War without a name'. . . a number of problems remain, especially the absence of sites in France to commemorate" the war. ^[39] Furthermore, conflicts arise on the commemoration date to end the war. Although most place it in the March 19, 1962 Evian agreements, which is the French state's official version, others point out that massacres of harkis and kidnapping of pied-noirs took place afterwards. Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the

Stora further points out that "The phase of memorial reconciliation between the two sides of the sea is still a long way off. "^[39] This was recently illustrated by the UMP's vote of the February 23, 2005 law on colonialism, which asserted that colonialism had globally been "positive. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The February 23, 2005 French law on colonialism was an act passed by the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP conservative majority which imposed " Thus, a teacher in one of the elite's high school of Paris can declare:

"Yes, colonisation has had positive effects. After all, we did give to Algeria modern infrastructures, a system of education, libraries, social centers. . . There were only 10% Algerian students in 1962? This is not much, of course, but it is not nothing either!"^[40]

Beside a heated debate in France, the February 23, 2005 law had the effect of jeopardizing the treaty of friendship that President Jacques Chirac was supposed to sign with President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, a treaty which is not any more in the agenda. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Abdelaziz Bouteflika (abdəlazɪz butəflika ( عبد العزيز بوتفليقة) (born March 2 1937 in Oujda, Morocco) has been the President Following this controversial law, Bouteflika has talked about a "cultural genocide", in particular in reference to the 1945 Sétif massacre. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group The Sétif massacre refers to widespread disturbances in and around the Algerian market town of Setif located to the west of Constantine in 1945 Chirac finally had the law repealed through a complex institutional mechanism.

Another matter concerns the teaching of the war, as well as of colonialism and decolonization, in particular in French secondary schools^[41] Hence, there is no reference to racism in any textbook, excepting one published by Bréal editing house and for Terminales students (those passing their baccalauréat). The French educational system is highly centralized organised and ramified List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that The baccalauréat (bakaloʁeˈa often known in France colloquially as le bac or le bachôt, is an academic qualification which This, despite an institutional racism still pregnant in French society, as demonstrated by SOS Racisme's various tests concerning racial discrimination. Institutional Racism (or structural racism or systemic racism) refers to a form of Racism which occurs specifically in institutions such as public SOS Racisme is a French Anti-racist NGO, founded in 1984 Its Spanish counterpart SOS Racismo, is based in Barcelona List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Textbooks still refers to "them" as "Muslims" and "us" as "French," despite the fact that Algerians were, de jure, French citizens (albeit half-class citizens), and that many French citizens today come from a Muslim background. Henceforth, it does not come as a surprise to see that some of the first to speak about the October 17, 1961 massacre were music bands, including (but not only), hip hop bands such as famous Suprême NTM ("les Arabes dans la Seine") or politically-engaged La Rumeur. Suprême NTM (or simply NTM) is a French hip hop group formed in 1989 in the Seine-Saint-Denis département La Rumeur is a french-language Rap group from Élancourt ( Yvelines, France) Indeed, the Algerian War is not even the subject of a specific chapter in textbook for Terminales^[37] Henceforth, Benjamin Stora can state that:

"As Algerians do not appear in their "indigenous" conditions and their sub-citizens status, as the history of nationalist movement is never evoqued, as none of the great figures of the resistance — Messali Hadj, Ferhat Abbas — emerge nor retain attention, in one word, as no one explains to students what has been colonisation, we make them unable to understand why the decolonisation took place. Algerian nationalism A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d Ferhat Abbas ( 24 October, 1899 &ndash 23 December, 1985) ( Algerian: Ferḥat Ɛebbas Arabic: فرحات عباس was an "^[37]

The Algerian War and its consequences are thus fundamental to any understanding of the state of XXIst century France, as well as the social situation in the French suburbs, which were brought to world attention during the civil unrest in autumn 2005. The social situation in the French suburbs, known as Banlieues ' is a complex topic The 2005 civil unrest in France of October and November was a series of Riots and violent clashes involving mainly the burning For the first time since the Algerian war, the head of the state, President Jacques Chirac (UMP) proclaimed the state of emergency, which was confirmed a few weeks later by the National Assembly (the only parties to vote against its extension were the Communist Party and the Greens, who explicitly referred to this dark period of French history that had been the Algerian War). A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors or order government agencies List in alphabetical order of the deputies of the 12th French National Assembly ( 2002 -2007 Les Verts (or The Greens are an Ecologist Political party to the Centre-left of the Political spectrum in France.

For example, in metropolitan France, in 1963, 43% of French Algerians lived in bidonvilles (shanty towns). Metropolitan France (France métropolitaine or la Métropole, or colloquially l'Hexagone) is the part of France located in Europe, including Poverty in France has fallen by 60% over thirty years Although it affected 15% of the population in 1970 in 2001 only 6 ^[42] Thus, Azouz Begag, Delegate Minister for Equal Opportunities in the government of current Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin (UMP), wrote an autobiographic novel, Le Gone du Chaâba, about his experience living in a bidonville in the outskirts of Lyon. Azouz Begag, ( عزوز بقاق) (born 5 February 1957 in Lyon, Rhône, France from an Algerian background is a Dominique de Villepin (born Dominique Marie François René Galouzeau de Villepin (dɔminik də vilpɛ̃ &mdash) on 14 November 1953 in Rabat, Morocco It is impossible to understand the third-generation of Algerian immigrants to France without recalling this bicultural experience. A policy of biculturalism is typically adopted in Nations that have emerged from a history of national or ethnic conflict in which neither side has gained complete victory An official parliamentary report on "prevention of criminality", commanded by then Interior Minister Dominique de Villepin (UMP), and made by MP Jacques-Alain Bénisti, went as far as claiming that "Multilingualism (bilinguisme) was a factor of criminality. " (sic^[43]). Following outcries from many NGOs and left-wing sectors, the definitive version of the Bénisti report finally made of multilingualism an asset instead of a default. ^[44]

Thus, the stakes of the contemporary debate on torture clearly appear in full light: after having denied its use during 40 years, the French state finally recognized it, although it never did any official proclamation about it. At least, General Aussaresses was condemned following his justification of the use of torture for "apology of war crimes. Paul Aussaresses (b 7 November 1918 in Saint-Paul-Cap-de-Joux, Tarn) is a retired French Army Brigadier General, who fought " But, in the same way that during the "events", the French state claimed torture was an isolated act, instead of admitting its responsibility in the institutionalization of torture as a standard counter-insurgency method, used to break the population's morale (and not, as Aussaresses has claimed, to "save lives" by gaining short-term information which would enable to stop "terrorists"^[45]), it now claims that it was a regrettable incident due to the context of the war. But various historical researches have proved both thesis false: "Torture in Algeria was engraved in the colonial act, it is the "normal" illustration of an abnormal system," wrote Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, who have published decisive work on the phenomena of "human zoos. Human zoos (also called "ethnological expositions" or " Negro Villages" were 19th and 20th century public exhibits of human beings usually in a "natural" "^[46] From the smokings (enfumades) of the Darha caves in 1844 by Pélissier to the 1945 riots in Sétif, Guelma and Kherrata," the repression in Algeria has used the same methods. Aimable Jean Jacques Pélissier, 1st Duc de Malakoff ( November 6, 1794 - May 22, 1864) was a Marshal of France Guelma (قالمة is the capital of Guelma Province and Guelma District; located in north-eastern Algeria, at about 40 kilometers from the Kherrata is a town in northern Algeria. Following the May 9, 1945 Sétif massacres, other riots against European presence occurred in Guelma, Batna, Biskra and Kherrata, making 103 deaths among the pied-noirs. Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar The repression of these riots officially made 1,500 deaths, but N. Bancel, P. Blanchard and S. Lemaire estimate it to be rather between 6 and 8,000 deaths^[46]

References

• Original text: Library of Congress Country Study of Algeria

INA archives

Note: concerning the audio and film archives from the Institut national de l'audiovisuel (INA), see Benjamin Stora's comments on their politically-oriented creation. The Ligue des droits de l'homme (LDH " Human Rights League " is a French NGO founded on June 4, 1898 Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced, Rennes ( Gallo: Resnn, Roazhon Condate Condate Riedonum is a city in the east of Brittany in northwestern Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs The Institut national de l'audiovisuel (or INA, French for National Audiovisual Institute is a repository of all French Radio and ^[1]

• Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rushes Interview Pied-Noir, ORTF, July 1 1962
• Cinq Colonnes à la une, Rétrospective Algérie, ORTF, June 9 1963 (concerning these INA archives, see also Benjamin Stora's warning about the conditions of creation of these images)

Contemporary works

• Trinquier, Roger. Roger Trinquier (20 March 1908 - 11 January 1986 was a French Army officer and theorist of Counter-insurgency warfare Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency (1961)
• Leulliette, Pierre, St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper, Houghton Mifflin, 1964
• Galula, David, Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice (1964)
• Jouhaud, Edmond. David Galula (1919-1967 was a French Military officer and scholar Edmond Jouhaud ( April 2, 1905 &ndash September 4, 1995) was one of four French generals who briefly staged a putsch in Algeria in O Mon Pays Perdu: De Bou-Sfer a Tulle. Paris: Librarie Artheme Fayard, 1969.
• Maignen, Etienne Treillis au djebel - Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne Yellow Concept, 2004.

Historians works

English language

• Aussaresses, Gen. Paul. The Battle of the Casbah, New York: Enigma Books, 2006, ISBN 1-929631-30-8.
• Horne, Alistair (1978). Sir Alistair Allan Horne (born November 9, 1925) is a British Historian of modern France. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962. Viking. ISBN 0-670-61964-7.  
• Maran, Rita (1989). Torture. Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally The role of ideology in the French-Algerian war, New York: Prager Publishers. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics
• Windrow, Martin. Martin C Windrow (1944-) is a British Historian, editor and Author of several hundred books articles and Monographs particularly those on The Algerian War 1954-62. London: Osprey Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-85532-658-2

French language

Translations may be available for some of these works. See specific cases.

• Benot, Yves (1994). Massacres coloniaux, La Découverte, coll. « Textes à l’appui », Paris.
• Jauffret, Jean-Charles. La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents (first tome, 1990; second tome, 1998; account here)
• Rey-Goldzeiguer, Annie (2001). Aux origines de la guerre d’Algérie, La Découverte, Paris.
• Robin, Marie-Monique. Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist Escadrons de la mort, l'école française,453 pages. La Découverte (15 September 2004). Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Collection: Cahiers libres. (ISBN 2707141631) (Spanish transl. : Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron,539 pages. Sudamericana; Édition : Translatio (October 2005). (ISBN 950072684X)
• Mekhaled, Boucif (1995). Chroniques d’un massacre. 8 mai 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata, Syros, Paris, 1995. Syros (Σύρος or Siros or Syra is a Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea.
• Slama, Alain-Gérard (1996). La Guerre d’Algérie. Histoire d’une déchirure, Gallimard, coll. Éditions Gallimard is one of the leading French Publishers of books « Découvertes », Paris.
• Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Pierre Emmanuel Vidal-Naquet ( July 23 1930 &ndash July 29, 2006) was a French Historian who began teaching at the La Torture sous la République (1970) & many others, more recent (see entry).
• Roy, Jules (1960). Jules Roy ( 22 October 1907 &ndash 15 June 2000) was a French writer "La guerre d'Algérie" ("The War in Algeria", 1961, Grove Press)
• Etienne Maignen. Grove Press is an American publishing imprint that was founded in 1951 Treillis au djebel- Les Piliers de Tiahmaïne Yellow Concept 2004.

Films

• Le Petit Soldat by Jean-Luc Godard (1960 - banned until 1963 because of the presence of scenes of torture)
• Muriel by Alain Resnais (1962)
• Lost Command aka Les Centurions (1966)
• The Battle of Algiers by Gillo Pontecorvo (1966 - censored at the time)
• RAS by Yves Boisset (1973)
• La Trahison by Philippe Faucon (2005, adapted from a novel by Claude Sales - on the presence of Muslim soldiers in the French Army)
• Nuit noire by Alain Tasma (2005, on the Paris massacre of 1961)
• Harkis by Alain Tasma (2006)
• Mon colonel by Laurent Herbier (2007)
• L'Ennemi intime by Florent Emilio Siri (scenario by Patrick Rotman, 2007)

See also

• Algiers putsch of 1961
• Armée de l'Air (Part III: End of empire in Indochina and Algeria, 1939-1962)
• Ahmed Ben Bella, first president of independent Algeria
• Comparison of Iraq War to the Algerian War of Independence
• Frantz Fanon
• Nationalism and resistance in Algeria
• Nuclear weapons and France (17 nuclear tests in the Algerian Sahara between 1960 and 1966)
• Paris massacre of 1961
• Oran massacre of 1962
• Manifesto of the 121 (aka Declaration on the Right to Insubordination in the War in Algeria — signed by historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet, member of the Comité Audin, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and others, the Manifeste des 121 calling for civil disobedience against the war (see fr:Manifeste des 121, full text translated in English and fr:Maurice Audin)
• Torture during the Algerian War
• Guerrilla warfare and Counter-insurgency
• History of Algeria since 1962
• History of Algeria
• Politics of Algeria
• French Algeria
• Ottoman Empire
• Ethnic cleansing
• Evian Agreements

External links

• Algerian War Reading
• Photos of the Algerian War of Independence (in French)
• Algerian National Liberation
• Pacification in Algeria: 1956–1958 by David Galula
• Audiovisual National Institute's declassified Algeria War archives (hundreds of free video: news rushes, interviews, official speeches, retrospectives, etc. Jean-Luc Godard (French ʒɑ̃lyk gɔˈdaʀ (born on December 3 1930 is a French and Swiss Filmmaker and one of the founding members of the Nouvelle Vague In standard conditions France does not have Censorship laws being a Liberal democracy respectful of Freedom of press. The French Armed Forces made a systematic and indiscriminate use of torture during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62 creating a public controversy which is far from Alain Resnais (born June 3 1922 in Vannes, France) is a French Film director whose early works are often grouped within the New Wave or The Battle of Algiers (La battaglia di Algeri is a 1966 Black-and-white film by Gillo Pontecorvo based on events during the 1954-1962 Algerian Gillo Pontecorvo ( November 19 1919 &ndash October 12 2006) was an Italian filmmaker, best known for La battaglia di Algeri In standard conditions France does not have Censorship laws being a Liberal democracy respectful of Freedom of press. Yves Boisset (born 14 March 1939 in Paris) is a French Film director and scriptwriter The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Florent Emilio Siri is a French Movie director born in Lorraine. The Algiers putsch (Putsch d'Alger or fr ''Coup d'État d'Alger'' also known as the Generals' putsch ( Putsch des Généraux) took place from the afternoon Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella (Muhammad Ahmad Bin Balla (أحمد بن بلّة (born December 25 1918, Maghnia, Algeria) was the first President There have been comparisons in public debate comparing the Iraq War to the Algerian War (1954-1962 Frantz Fanon ( July 20, 1925 – December 6, 1961) was a Psychiatrist, philosopher, revolutionary and author from Algerian nationalism A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s France is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but is not known to possess or develop any chemical or The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 The Oran massacre of 1962 was a massacre of civilians in Oran, Algeria on July 5, 1962, at the end of the Algerian War (1954–62 The Manifesto of the 121 ( French: Manifeste des 121, full title Déclaration sur le droit à l’insoumission dans la guerre d’Algérie or Declaration Pierre Emmanuel Vidal-Naquet ( July 23 1930 &ndash July 29, 2006) was a French Historian who began teaching at the "La Beauvoir" redirects here also see Beauvoir (disambiguation Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Maurice Merleau-Ponty (mɔʁis mɛʁlopɔ̃ti in French March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological The Manifesto of the 121 ( French: Manifeste des 121, full title Déclaration sur le droit à l’insoumission dans la guerre d’Algérie or Declaration Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain Laws demands and commands of a Government, or of an occupying power, without resorting to physical The Manifesto of the 121 ( French: Manifeste des 121, full title Déclaration sur le droit à l’insoumission dans la guerre d’Algérie or Declaration Maurice Audin (1932-1957 was a French mathematics assistant at the University of Algiers, a member of the Algerian Communist Party and an activist in the anticolonialist The French Armed Forces made a systematic and indiscriminate use of torture during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62 creating a public controversy which is far from Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat History of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, 1962&ndashpresent In preparation for independence the CNRA (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne The fertile Coastal plain of North Africa, especially west of Tunisia, is often called the Maghreb (or Maghrib Politics of Algeria takes place in a framework of a presidential Republic, whereby the President of Algeria is both Head of state and Head French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the )
• Algerian War Retrospective

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