| Alfred Adler | |
 Alfred Adler
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| Born | February 7, 1870 Rudolfsheim, Austria |
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| Died | May 28, 1937 (aged 67) Aberdeen, Scotland |
| Cause of death | Heart attack |
| Residence | Austria |
| Nationality | Austrian |
| Occupation | Psychiatrist |
| Known for | Individual Psychology |
| Spouse | Raissa Epstein |
| Part of a series of articles on Psychoanalysis |
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Alfred Adler (February 7, 1870 – May 28, 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of the school of Individual Psychology. Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus is the 15th district of Vienna. It borders Neubau and Mariahilf in the east Meidling and Hietzing Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Aberdeen ( pronounced; Aiberdeen Obar Dheathain is Scotland 's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Myocardial infarction ( MI or AMI for acute myocardial infarction) also known as a heart attack, occurs when the blood supply Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Individual Psychology is a term used specifically to refer to the psychological method or science founded by the Viennese Psychologist Alfred Adler Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual Psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson explains Eight Stages through which a healthily developing Human should pass from Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the See also Consciousness Jacques Lacan Philosophy of mind Rapid eye movement sleep Many observers throughout history have argued that there are influences on Consciousness from other parts of the Mind. The term psychic apparatus (sometimes translated as psychical apparatus or mental apparatus) is a central concept of Freudian Metapsychology. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Libido in its common usage means Sexual desire however more technical definitions such as those found in the work of Carl Jung, are more general referring to libido Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Transference is a phenomenon in Psychoanalysis characterized by unconscious redirection of feelings for one person to another In Psychology, sublimation is a coping mechanism It has its roots in the Nietzschean & psychoanalytical approach and is often also referred to as a type Psychological resistance is the phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly oppose changing their behavior or refuse to discuss Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Otto Rank ( April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939) was an Austrian Psychoanalyst, writer teacher and therapist Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud Margaret Schönberger Mahler ( May 10 1897 – October 2 1985) was a Hungarian physician who later became interested in psychiatry Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst William Ronald Dodds Fairbairn ( 11 August 1889 - 31 December 1964) was a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. Melanie Klein ( March 30 1882 – September 22 1960) was an Austrian born Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Erik Homburger Erikson ( June 15, 1902 – May 12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents but later obtained Nancy Julia Chodorow is a feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst born 20 January 1944 in New York City. Susan Sutherland Isaacs (née Fairhurst (1885–1948 was an English educational Psychologist and Psychoanalyst. Alfred Ernest Jones ( January 1, 1879 – February 11, 1958) Welsh Neurologist, Psychoanalyst and Sigmund Heinz Kohut May 3 1913 &ndash October 8 1981 is best known for his development of Self Psychology, a school of thought The Interpretation of Dreams is a book by Sigmund Freud. The first edition was first published in German in November 1899 as Die Traumdeutung The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis (Les quatres concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse is the English translation of one of the pivotal works of Jacques " Beyond the Pleasure Principle " (first published in German in 1920 as Jenseits des Lustprinzips) is an essay by Sigmund Freud. Civilization and Its Discontents is a book by Sigmund Freud. Written in 1929 and first published in German in 1930 as Das Unbehagen in der Kultur Self psychology is a school of Psychoanalytic theory and therapy created by Heinz Kohut and developed in the United States. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) refers to the school of Psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and then advanced Object relations theory is a psychodynamic theory within Psychoanalytic psychology. Interpersonal psychoanalysis is based on the theories of Harry Stack Sullivan, an American Psychiatrist who believed that the details of patient's interpersonal interactions Relational psychoanalysis is a school of Psychoanalysis in the United States that emphasizes the role of real and imagined relationships with others in Mental disorder Ego psychology is a school of Psychoanalysis rooted in Sigmund Freud 's structural -- id-ego-superego -- model of the mind Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Individual Psychology is a term used specifically to refer to the psychological method or science founded by the Viennese Psychologist Alfred Adler In collaboration with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freud's colleagues, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded He was the first major figure to break away from psychoanalysis to form an independent school of psychotherapy and personality theory. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living Adler had an enormous effect on the disciplines of counseling and psychotherapy as they would develop over the course of the 20th century (Ellenberger, 1970). He influenced notable figures in other schools of psychotherapy such as Rollo May, Viktor Frankl, Abraham Maslow and Albert Ellis. Rollo May ( April 21, 1909 – October 22, 1994) was an American existential psychologist. Viktor Emil Frankl MD, PhD, ( March 26, 1905 - September 2, 1997) was an Austrian neurologist Abraham Harold Maslow ( April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist. Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive His writings preceded and at times were surprisingly consistent with later neo-Freudian insights such as evidenced in the works of Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan and Erich Fromm. Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Herbert "Harry" Stack Sullivan ( February 21, 1892, Norwich New York – January 14, 1949, Paris, France Erich Pinchas Fromm ( March 23, 1900 &ndash March 18, 1980) was an internationally renowned social psychologist, psychoanalyst
Adler emphasized the importance of social equality in order to prevent various forms of psychopathology and espoused the development of social interest and democratic family structures as the ideal ethos for raising children. In chapter 3 of Impact of Science on Society, Bertrand Russell said that the behavior of people in futuristic scientific dictatorships is best described by Adler's theories. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian His most famous concept is the inferiority complex which speaks to the problem of self-esteem and its negative compensations (e. An inferiority complex, in the fields of Psychology and Psychoanalysis, is a feeling that one is inferior to others in some way g. sometimes producing a paradoxical superiority striving). His emphasis on power dynamics is rooted in the philosophy of Nietzsche. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Adler argued for holism, viewing the individual holistically rather than reductively, the latter being the dominant lens for viewing human psychology. Adler was also among the first in psychology to argue in favor of feminism making the case that power dynamics between men and women (and associations with masculinity and femininity) are crucial to understanding human psychology (Connell, 1995). Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Adler is considered, along with Freud and Jung, to be one of the three founding figures of depth psychology, which emphasizes the unconscious and psychodynamics (Ellenberger, 1970; Ehrenwald, 1991). Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Depth psychology is a broad term that refers to any psychological approach examining the depth (the subtle or unconscious parts of human experience
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Early life
Born in the suburbs of Vienna on February 7, 1870, Alfred Adler was the third child and second son of a Jewish grain merchant and his wife. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old. Rickets is a softening of the bones in children potentially leading to fractures and deformity He almost died of pneumonia when he was five and it was at this age that he decided to be a physician. [1]
Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund.
In 1895 he received a medical degree from the University of Vienna. The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. During his college years, he became attached to a group of socialist students, among which he found his wife-to-be, Raissa Timofeyewna Epstein, an intellectual and social activist from Russia studying in Vienna. They married in 1897 and had four children, two of whom became psychiatrists.
He began his medical career as an opthamologist, but he soon switched to general practice, and established his office in a lower-class part of Vienna, across from the Prater, a combination amusement park and circus. Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain His clients included circus people, and it has been suggested[2] that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into "organ inferiorities" and "compensation".
Adler and Freud
In 1901 Adler received a letter from Sigmund Freud inviting him to join an informal discussion group that included Rudolf Reitler, and Wilhelm Stekel. They met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freud's home with membership expanding over time. This group was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement (Mittwochsgesellschaft or the "Wednesday Society"). A long serving member of the group, Adler became President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later (1910). He remained a member of the Society until 1911 when he and a group of supporters formally disengaged, the first of the great dissenters from Freudian psychoanalysis (preceding Carl Jung's notorious split in 1914). This departure suited both Freud and Adler since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which often diverged from Freud's. It is commonly suggested that Adler was once "a pupil of Freud's", however this suggestion is a myth; they were colleagues. In 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freud's but rather that Freud had sought him out to share his ideas.
Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adler's group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents (who believed that Adler's ideas on power and inferiority were closer to Nietzsche than were Freud's). Their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration of Freud's ideas on dreams and credited him for creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization (Fiebert, 1997). Nevertheless, even with dream interpretation, Adler had his own theoretical and clinical approach. The primary differences between Adler and Freud centered on Adler's contention that the social realm (exteriority) is as important to psychology as is the internal realm (interiority). The dynamics of power and compensation extend beyond sexuality and the arena of gender and politics are important considerations that go beyond libido. Moreover, Freud did not share Adler's socialist beliefs. Trotsky's biography mentions his having discussions with Alfred Adler in Vienna.
The Adlerian School
Following Adler's break from Freud, he enjoyed considerable success and celebrity in building an independent school of psychotherapy and a unique personality theory. Adlerian is an umbrella term that encompasses a diversity of approaches to psychology and psychotherapy generally related to the ideas of Alfred Adler. He traveled and lectured for a period of 25 years promoting his socially oriented approach. His intent was to build a movement that would rival, even supplant, others in psychology by arguing for the holistic integrity of psychological well-being with that of social equality. Adler's efforts were halted by World War I, during which he served as a doctor with the Austrian Army. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Post-war his influence increased greatly. In the 1930s, he established a number of child guidance clinics. From 1921 onwards, he was a frequent lecturer in Europe and the United States, becoming a visiting professor at Columbia University in 1927. His clinical treatment methods for adults were aimed at uncovering the hidden purpose of symptoms using the therapeutic functions of insight and meaning.
Adler was concerned with the overcoming of the superiority/inferiority dynamic and was one of the first psychotherapists to discard the analytic couch in favor of two chairs. This allows the clinician and patient to sit together more or less as equals. Clinically, Adler's methods were not limited to treatment after-the-fact but extend to the realm of prevention by preempting future problems in the child. Prevention strategies include encouraging and promoting social interest, belonging, and a cultural shift within families and communities that leads to the eradication of pampering and neglect (especially corporal punishment). Adler's popularity was related to the comparative optimism and comprehensibility of his ideas. He often wrote for the lay public compared to Freud or Jung, whose writings tended to be exclusively academic. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Adler always retained a pragmatic approach that was task oriented. These "Life tasks" are occupation/work, society/friendship, and love/sexuality. Their success depends on co-operation. The tasks of life are not to be considered in isolation since, as Adler (1956) famously commented, "they all throw cross-lights on one another" (pp. 132-133).
Emigration and death
In 1932, after most of Adler's Austrian clinics were closed due to his Jewish heritage (he had converted to Christianity) Adler left Austria for a professorship at the Long Island College of Medicine in the USA. Adler died from a heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland during a lecture tour in 1937. Aberdeen ( pronounced; Aiberdeen Obar Dheathain is Scotland 's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council At the time it was a blow to the influence of his ideas although a number of them were taken up by neo-Freudians. The Neo-Freudian psychologists were those followers of Sigmund Freud who accepted the basic tenets of his theory of Psychoanalysis but altered it in some Through the work of Dreikurs in the United States and many other adherents worldwide, Adlerian ideas and approaches remain strong and viable more than 70 years after Adler's death.
Around the world there are various organizations promoting Adler's orientation towards mental and social well-being. These include the International Committee of Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), the North American Society for Adlerian Psychology (NASAP) and the International Association for Individual Psychology. Teaching institutes and programs exist in Austria, Canada, England, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Switzerland, the United States, Peru and Wales
Basic principles
Adler was influenced by the mental construct ideas of the philosopher Hans Vaihinger (The Philosophy of As If/Philosophie des Als Ob) and the literature of Dostoevsky. Hans Vaihinger ( September 25, 1852 &ndash December 18, 1933) was a German philosopher, best known as a Kant Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes transliterated Dostoyevsky, Dostoievsky, While still a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society he developed a theory of organic inferiority and compensation that was the prototype for his later turn to phenomenology and the development of his famous concept, the inferiority complex. Formerly the Psychological Wednesday Society. They commenced their meetings in Freud’s apartment in 1902
Adler was also influenced by the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Rudolf Virchow and the statesman Jan Smuts (who coined the term "holism"). Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow ( 13 October 1821 &ndash 5 September 1902) was a German doctor, anthropologist, public health Field Marshal Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, PC, ED, KC, FRS (24 May 1870 &ndash 11 September 1950 was a prominent Adler's School, known as "Individual Psychology"—an arcane reference to the Latin individuus meaning indivisibility, a term intended to emphasize holism—is both a social and community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early advocate in psychology for prevention and emphasized the training of parents, teachers, social workers and so on in democratic approaches that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision making whilst co-operating with others. He was a social idealist, and was known as a socialist in his early years of association with psychoanalysis (1902–1911). His allegiance to Marxism dissipated over time (he retained Marx's social idealism yet distanced himself from Marx's economic theories). Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Adler (1938) was a very pragmatic man and believed that lay people could make practical use of the insights of psychology. He sought to construct a social movement united under the principles of "Gemeinschaftsgefuehl" (community feeling) and social interest (the practical actions that are exercised for the social good). Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in psychology and the social world believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate These styles could form the basis of psychic compensation and lead to mental health difficulties. Adler also spoke of "safeguarding tendencies" and neurotic behavior long before Anna Freud wrote about the same phenomena in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud
Adlerian-based scholarly, clinical and social practices focus on the following topics:
- Mental Health Prevention
- Social Interest and Community Feeling
- Holism and the Creative Self
- Fictional Finalism, Teleology, and Goal constructs
- Psychological and Social Encouragement
- Inferiority, Superiority and Compensation
- Life Style / Style of Life
- Early Recollections (a projective technique)
- Family Constellation and Birth Order
- Life Tasks & Social Embeddedness
- The Conscious and Unconscious realms
- Private Logic & Common Sense (based in part on Kant's "sensus communis")
- Symptoms and Neurosis
- Safeguarding Behaviour
- Guilt and Guilt Feelings
- Socratic Questioning
- Dream Interpretation
- Child and Adolescent Psychology
- Democratic approaches to Parenting and Families
- Adlerian Approaches to Classroom Management
- Leadership and Organisational Psychology
From its inception, Adlerian psychology has always included both professional and lay adherents. Indeed, Adler felt that all people could make use of the scientific insights garnered by psychology and he welcomed everyone, from decorated academics to those with no formal education to participate in spreading the principles of Adlerian psychology.
Adler's approach to personality
Adler's 1912 book, Über den nervösen Charakter (The Neurotic Character) defines his earlier key ideas. He argued that human personality could be explained teleologically, separate strands dominated by the guiding purpose of the individual's unconscious self ideal to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness). Teleology ( Greek: telos: end purpose is the philosophical study of design and Purpose. The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands. If the corrective factors were disregarded and the individual over-compensated, then an inferiority complex would occur, fostering the danger of the individual becoming egocentric, power-hungry and aggressive or worse. Common therapeutic tools include the use of humor, historical instances, and paradoxical injunctions.
Psychodynamics and teleology
Adler believed that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature yet unlike Freud's metapsychology, which emphasizes instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and fuelled by a yet unknown creative force. Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have a "teleological" function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view these "teleological" goals as "fictions" in the sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of (fictio). Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. Classical Adlerian Psychology is a values-based fully-integrated theory of personality model of Psychopathology, philosophy of living strategy for preventative education The inferiority / superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and over-compensation. For example, in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin" (overcompensation on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Anorexia Nervosa is a psychiatric Diagnosis that describes an Eating disorder characterized by low Body weight and Body image distortion Hence, the fictive final goal can serve a persecutory function that is ever-present in subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious). The end goal of being "thin" is fictive however since it can never be subjectively achieved.
Teleology also serves another vital function for Adlerians. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the consequences") provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics. Here we also find Adler's emphasis on personal responsibility in mentally healthy subjects who seek their own and the social good (Slavik & King, 2007).
Constructivism and metaphysics
The metaphysical thread of Adlerian theory does not problematise the notion of teleology since concepts such as eternity (an ungraspable end where time ceases to exist) match the religious aspects that are held in tandem. In contrast, the constructivist Adlerian threads (either humanist/modernist or postmodern in variant) seek to raise insight of the force of unconscious fictions - which carry all of the inevitability of 'fate' - so long as one does not understand them. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Here, 'teleology' itself is fictive yet experienced as quite real. This aspect of Adler's theory is somewhat analogous to the principles developed in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT). Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy ( REBT) is a comprehensive active-directive philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses Cognitive Therapy (CT is a type of Psychotherapy developed by American Psychiatrist Aaron T Both Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck credit Adler as a major precursor to REBT and CT. Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive Aaron Temkin Beck (born July 18 1921 is an American psychiatrist and a Professor emeritus at the department of Psychiatry at the University Ellis in particular was a member of the North American Society for Adlerian Psychology and served as an editorial board member for the Adlerian Journal Individual Psychology.
As a psychodynamic system, Adlerians excavate the past of a client/patient in order to alter their future and increase integration into community in the 'here-and-now'. The 'here-and-now' aspects are especially relevant to those Adlerians who emphasize humanism and/or existentialism in their approaches.
Holism
Metaphysical Adlerians emphasise a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts articulated (Smuts coined the term "holism"), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism: from ὅλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones. Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions Whilst Smuts' text Holism and Evolution is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with a higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (among these, Baha'i, Chrisitanity, Judaism, Islam and Buddhism) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought.
The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the socio-historical-political forces that shape communities matter a great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's psychological make-up and functioning. This aspect of Adlerian psychology holds a high level of synergy with the field of community psychology. Community psychology deals with the relationships of the individual to communities and the wider society However, Adlerian psychology, unlike community psychology, is holistically concerned with both prevention and clinical treatment after-the-fact. Hence, Adler cannot be considered the "first community psychologist", a discourse that formalized in the decades following Adler's death (King & Shelley, 2008).
Adlerian psychology, Carl Jung's Analytical Psychology, Gestalt Therapy and Karen Horney's psychodynamic approach are holistic schools of psychology. Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) refers to the school of Psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and then advanced Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye" /hɔrnaɪ/ born Danielsen ( September 16, 1885 – December 4, 1952) was a German Psychodynamics, is the systematized study and theory of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior emphasizing the interplay between unconscious and conscious motivation and These discourses eschew a reductive approach to understanding human psychology and psychopathology.
Typology
Adler (1956) developed a scheme of the so called personality types. These 'types' are to be taken as provisional or heuristic since he did not, in essence, believe in personality types. The danger with typology is to lose sight of the individual's uniqueness and to gaze reductively, acts that Adler opposed. Nevertheless, he intended to illustrate patterns that could denote a characteristic governed under the overall style of life. Hence American Adlerians such as Harold Mosak have made use of Adler's typology in this provisional sense:
- The Getting or Leaning type are those who selfishly take without giving back. These people also tend to be anti-social and have low activity levels.
- The Avoiding types are those that hate being defeated. They may be successful, but have not taken any risks getting there. They are likely to have low social contact in fear of rejection or defeat in any way.
- The Ruling or Dominant type strive for power and are willing to manipulate situations and people, anything to get their way. People of this type are also prone to anti-social behavior.
- The Socially Useful types are those who are very outgoing and very active. They have a lot of social contact and strive to make changes for the good.
These 'types' are typically formed in childhood and are expressions of the Style of Life.
On birth order
Adler often emphasized one's birth order as having an influence on the Style of Life and the strengths and weaknesses in one's psychological make up. Birth Order referred to the placement of siblings within the family. Adler believed that the firstborn child would be loved and nurtured by the family until the arrival of a second child. This second child would cause the first born to suffer feelings of dethronement, no longer being the center of attention. Adler (1956) believed that in a three-child family, the oldest child would be the most likely to suffer from neuroticism and substance addiction which he reasoned was a compensation for the feelings of excessive responsibility "the weight of the world on one's shoulders" (e. g. having to look after the younger ones) and the melancholic loss of that once supremely pampered position. As a result, he predicted that this child was the most likely to end up in jail or an asylum. Youngest children would tend to be overindulged, leading to poor social empathy. Consequently, the middle child, who would experience neither dethronement nor overindulgence, was most likely to develop into a successful individual yet also most likely to be a rebel and to feel squeezed-out. Adler himself was the second in a family of six children.
Adler never produced any scientific support for his interpretations on birth order roles. Yet the value of the hypothesis was to extend the importance of siblings in marking the psychology of the individual beyond Freud's more limited emphasis on the Mother and Father. Hence, Adlerians spend time therapeutically mapping the influence that siblings (or lack thereof) had on the psychology of their clients. The idiographic approach entails an excavation of the phenomenology of one's birth order position for likely influence on the subject's Style of Life. In sum, the subjective experiences of sibling positionality and inter-relations are psychodynamically important for Adlerian therapists and personality theorists, not the cookbook predictions that may or may not have been objectively true in Adler's time.
On homosexuality
Adler's ideas regarding non-heteronormative sexuality and various social forms of deviance have long been controversial. Heteronormativity is a term to describe the marginalization of Non-heterosexual lifestyles and the view that Heterosexuality is the normal Sexual orientation Along with prostitution and criminality, Adler had classified 'homosexuals' as falling among the "failures of life". In 1917, he began his writings on homosexuality with a 52 page brochure, and sporadically published more thoughts throughout the rest of his life.
The Dutch psychiatrist Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg underlines how Alfred Adler came to his conclusions for, in 1917, Adler believed that he had established a connection between homosexuality and an inferiority complex towards one's own gender. This point of view differed from Freud's equally problematic contention that homosexuality is rooted in narcissism or Jung's conservative views of inappropriate expressions of contrasexuality vis-a-vis the archetypes of the Anima and Animus.
In contemporary Adlerian thought gays, lesbians, and bisexuals are not considered within the problematic discourse of the "failures of life". There is evidence that Adler may have been moving towards abandoning the hypothesis. Towards the end of Adler's life, in the mid 1930s, his opinion towards homosexuality began to shift. Elizabeth H. McDowell, a New York state family social worker recalls undertaking supervision with Adler on a young man who was "living in sin" with an older man in New York city. Adler asked her, "is he happy, would you say"? "Oh yes", Elizabeth replied. Adler then stated, "Well, why don't we leave him alone" (Manaster, Painter, Deutsch, and Overholt, 1977, pp. 81-82). On reflection, Elizabeth found this comment to contain "profound wisdom". In the 1930s the common attitude and medical opinion was quite unanimous, homosexuality was considered a moral failing and a mental disease. In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association de-listed homosexuality as a mental disorder in their diagnostic nomenclature (DSM). The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association Christopher Shelley (1998), an Adlerian psychotherapist, published a volume of essays in the 1990s that feature Freudian, (post)Jungian and Adlerian contributions that demonstrate affirmative shifts in the depth psychologies. These shifts show how depth psychology can be utilized to support rather than pathologise gay and lesbian psychotherapy clients. The Journal of Individual Psychology, the flagship publication of Adlerian Psychology, is set to release an article this summer reviewing and correcting Adler's previously held beliefs on the GLBT community.
On Parent education and prevention
Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. As a psychodynamic psychology, Adlerians emphasize the foundational importance of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards various forms of psychopathology. The best way to inoculate against what are now termed "personality disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various neurotic conditions (depression, anxiety, etc. ), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. This entails developing a democratic character and the ability to exercise power reasonably rather than through compensation. Hence Adler proselytized against corporal punishment and cautioned parents to refrain from the twin evils of pampering and neglect. The responsibility to the optimal development of the child is not limited to the Mother or Father but to teachers and society more broadly. Adler argued therefore that teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education in order to complement the work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted upon (abused through pampering or neglect) they are likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes and various accompanying compensation strategies. These strategies exact a social toll by seeding higher divorce rates, the breakdown of the family, criminal tendencies and subjective suffering in the various guises of psychopathology. Adlerians have long promoted parent education groups especially those influenced by the famous Austrian/American Adlerian Rudolf Dreikurs (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1964). Rudolf Dreikurs ( February 8 1897, Vienna - May 25 1972, Chicago) was an American Psychiatrist and Educator
Spirituality, ecology and community
In a late work Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind Adler (1938) turns to the subject of metaphysics where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the idea of teleology and community: "sub specie aeternitatus". Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable. . . when humanity has attained its goal of perfection. . . an ideal society amongst all mankind, the ultimate fulfillment of evolution. " (p. 275). Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of metaphysics:
"I see no reason to be afraid of metaphysics; it has had a great influence on human life and development. We are not blessed with the possession of absolute truth; on that account we are compelled to form theories for ourselves about our future, about the results of our actions, etc. Our idea of social feeling as the final form of humanity - of an imagined state in which all the problems of life are solved and all our relations to the external world rightly adjusted - is a regulative ideal, a goal that gives our direction. This goal of perfection must bear within it the goal of an ideal community, because all that we value in life, all that endures and continues to endure, is eternally the product of this social feeling. " (Adler, 1938, pp. 275-276).
This social feeling for Adler is Gemeinschaftsgefuehl, a community feeling whereby one feels they belong with others and have also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub specie aeternitatus. Clearly, Adler himself had little problem with adopting a metaphysical and spiritual point of view to support his theories. Yet his overall theoretical yield provides ample room for the dialectical humanist (modernist) and separately the postmodernist to explain the significance of community and ecology through differing lenses (even if Adlerians have not fully considered how deeply divisive and contradictory these three threads of metaphysics, modernism, and post modernism are).
Publications
Alfred Adler's key publications were The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (1927), Understanding Human Nature (1927) and What Life Could Mean to You (1931). In his lifetime, Adler published more than 300 books and articles.
The Alfred Adler Institute of Northwestern Washington has recently published the first ten of the twelve-volume set of The Collected Clinical Works of Alfred Adler, covering his writings from 1898-1937. An entirely new translation of Adler's magnum opus, The Neurotic Character, is featured in Volume 1.
- Volume 1 : The Neurotic Character — 1907
- Volume 2 : Journal Articles 1898-1909
- Volume 3 : Journal Articles 1910-1913
- Volume 4 : Journal Articles 1914-1920
- Volume 5 : Journal Articles 1921-1926
- Volume 6 : Journal Articles 1927-1931
- Volume 7 : Journal Articles 1931-1937
- Volume 8 : Lectures to Physicians & Medical Students
- Volume 9 : Case Histories
- Volume 10 : Case Readings & Demonstrations
- Volume 11 : Education for Prevention
- Volume 12 : The General System of Individual Psychology
Other key Adlerian texts
- Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds. ). New York: Harper Torchbooks.
- Bottome, Phyllis (1939). Alfred Adler - Apostle of Freedom. London: Faber and Faber. 3rd Ed. 1957.
- Carlson, J. , Watts, R. E. , & Maniacci, M. (2005). Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Dinkmeyer, D. , Sr. , & Dreikurs, R. (2000). Encouraging Children to Learn. Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge.
- Handlbauer, B. (1998). The Freud - Adler controversy. Oxford, UK: Oneworld.
- Hoffman, E. (1994). The Drive for Self: Alfred Adler and the Founding of Individual Psychology. New York: Addison-Wesley Co.
- Lehrer, R. (1999). Adler and Nietzsche. In: J. Golomb, W. Santaniello, and R. Lehrer. (Eds. ). Nietzsche and Depth Psychology. (pp. 229-246). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
- Mosak, H. H. & Di Pietro, R. (2005). Early Recollections: Interpretive Method and Application. New York: Routledge.
- Oberst, U. E. and Stewart, A. E. (2003). Adlerian Psychotherapy: An Advanced Approach to Individual Psychology. New York: Brunner-Routledge.
- Slavik, S. & Carlson, J. (Eds. ). (2005). Readings in the Theory of Individual Psychology. New York: Routledge.
- Watts, R. E. (2003). Adlerian, cognitive, and constructivist therapies: An integrative dialogue. New York: Springer.
- Watts, R. E. , & Carlson, J. (1999). Interventions and strategies in counseling and psychotherapy. New York: Accelerated Development/Routledge.
- West, G. K. (1975). Kierkegaard and Adler. Tallahassee: Florida State University.
References
Notes
- Adler, A. (1938). Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind. J. Linton and R. Vaughan (Trans. ). London: Faber and Faber Ltd.
- Adler, A. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds. ). New York: Harper Torchbooks.
- Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
- Dreikurs, R. & Soltz, V. (1964). Children the Challenge. New York: Hawthorn Books.
- Ehrenwald, J. (1991). The History of Psychotherapy. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc.
- Ellenberger, H. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious. New York: Basic Books.
- Fiebert, M. S. (1997). In and out of Freud's shadow: A chronology of Adler's relationship with Freud. Individual Psychology, 53(3), 241-269.
- King, R. & Shelley, C. (2008). Community Feeling and Social Interest: Adlerian Parallels, Synergy, and Differences with the Field of Community Psychology. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 96-107.
- Manaster, G. J. , Painter, G. , Deutsch, D. , & Overholt, B. J. (Eds. ). (1977). Alfred Adler: As We Remember Him. Chicago: North American Society of Adlerian Psychology.
- Shelley, C. (Ed. ). (1998). Contemporary Perspectives on Psychotherapy and Homosexualities. London: Free Association Books.
- Slavik, S. & King, R. (2007). Adlerian therapeutic strategy. The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology, 37(1), 3-16.
- Gantschacher, H. (ARBOS 2007). Witness and Victim of the Apocalypse, chapter 13 page 12 and chapter 14 page 6.
English language Adlerian journals
North America:
- The Journal of Individual Psychology (University of Texas Press)
- The Canadian Journal of Adlerian Psychology (Adlerian Psychology Association of British Columbia)
United Kingdom:
- Adlerian Yearbook (Adlerian Society, UK)
External links
- The Adlerian Society (UK) and the Institute for Individual Psychology
- The North American Society of Adlerian Psychology
- The Adler Centre
- International Association of Individual Psychology
- Classical Adlerian Psychology
- International Committee for Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes
- Journal of Individual Psychology
- Deutsche Gesellschaft für Individualpsychologie
- L’ Istituto Alfred Adler di Milano
- Società Adleriana Italiana Gruppi e Analisi
- Alfred Adler Institut
- Japanese Society of Adlerian Psychology
- Individualiosios psichologijos institutas
- Adler School of Professional Psychology in Chicago
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Alfred, Adler |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Medical Doctor, Psychologist, Psychiatrist, Psychotherapist, Personality Theorist |
| DATE OF BIRTH | February 7, 1870 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Rudolfsheim, Austria |
| DATE OF DEATH | May 28, 1937 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Aberdeen, Scotland |
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