| Alexander the Great | |
| Basileus of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Pharaoh of Egypt, Shahanshah of Persia | |
 Alexander fighting Persian king Darius III. "Basilissa" redirects here For the saint of this name see Julian and Basilissa. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League (original name Hellenes - 'The Greeks' was a federation of Greek states created by Philip Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of From Alexander Mosaic, from Pompeii, Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. The Alexander Mosaic or The Battle of Issus, dating from circa 200 BC is a famous Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii. Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples and Caserta in the Italian region of Campania, in Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the The Naples National Archaeological Museum ( Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) is located in Naples Italy, at the northwest corner of the original Greek |
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| Reign | 336-323 BC |
|---|---|
| Born | July 20, 356 BC |
| Birthplace | Pella, Macedon |
| Died | June 10, 323 BC (aged 32) |
| Place of death | Babylon |
| Predecessor | Philip II |
| Successor | Alexander IV |
| Consort | Roxana of Bactria Stateira of Persia |
| Issue | Alexander IV |
| Father | Philip II of Macedon |
| Mother | Olympias of Epirus |
Alexander the Great (Greek: Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας or Μέγας Aλέξανδρος,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 20 356 BC – June 10 323 BC),[2][3] also known as Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο Μακεδών) was an ancient Greek[4][5] king (basileus) of Macedon (336–323 BC). Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Events By place Persian Empire Having blamed the defeats by Philip II in Thessaly and Chalcidice on his colleagues Chares is Pella (Πέλλα was the Capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Events By place Macedonian Empire 10 June — In Babylon, Alexander the Great dies ten days after being taken ill Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Alexander IV Aegus (in Greek, Ἀλέξανδρος Aἰγός &mdash 323&ndash309 BC was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon Roxana ( Bactrian, Persian: Roshanak; Bactrian definition literally "luminous beauty" Persian definition "the dawn" was a Stateira II ( creation of the stars) was daughter of Stateira I and Darius III of Persia, sister of Drypteis, and granddaughter Alexander IV Aegus (in Greek, Ἀλέξανδρος Aἰγός &mdash 323&ndash309 BC was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Olympias (in Greek, Ὀλυμπιάς; ca 376&ndash316 BC was an Epirote Princess, the fourth wife of the king Philip II of Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions "Basilissa" redirects here For the saint of this name see Julian and Basilissa. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most He was one of the most successful military commanders in history, and was undefeated in battle. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks.
Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedon following the death of his father Philip II of Macedon. Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Philip had united most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian rule (the so-called League of Corinth). A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League (original name Hellenes - 'The Greeks' was a federation of Greek states created by Philip After reconfirming Macedonian hegemony by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states, and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbors, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which he defeated and overthrew. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of His conquests including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Bactria, and Mesopotamia, and extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Punjab, India. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country
Prior to his death, Alexander had already made plans for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian peninsula, after which he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula). The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra His original vision had been to the east, though, to the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea, as described by his boyhood tutor Aristotle. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
Alexander integrated many foreigners into his army, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion. " He also encouraged marriages between his soldiers and foreigners; he himself went on to marry two foreign princesses.
Alexander died after twelve years of constant military campaigning, possibly as a result of malaria, poisoning, typhoid fever, viral encephalitis or the consequences of alcoholism. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium Encephalitis is an acute Inflammation of the Brain, commonly caused by a viral Infection. [2][6] His legacy and conquests lived on long after him, and ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and cultural influence over distant areas. This period is known as the Hellenistic Age, and featured a combination of Greek, Middle Eastern and Indian culture. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Alexander himself was featured prominently in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. His exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appeared as a legendary hero in the tradition of Achilles. A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor.
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Early life
Born in Pella, capital of Macedon, Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and of his fourth wife Olympias, an Epirote princess. Pella (Πέλλα was the Capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Olympias (in Greek, Ὀλυμπιάς; ca 376&ndash316 BC was an Epirote Princess, the fourth wife of the king Philip II of Epirus (from Ionic Greek Ήπειρος - Ēpeiros, Doric Greek: Ἅπειρος - Apeiros, in Albanian On his mother's side, he was a second cousin of Pyrrhus of Epirus, who himself would go on to become a celebrated general; thus, there are notable examples of military genius on both sides of his family. Pyrrhus (318-272 BC ( Greek: Πύρρος Aιακιδης Pyrros Aiakides was one of the most successful ancient Greek generals of the Hellenistic According to Plutarch, his father was descended from Heracles through Karanus of Macedon and his mother descended from Aeacus through Neoptolemus and Achilles. In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or This is about the mythological king For other uses see Caranus Caranus or Karanus ( Greek: 808- 778 BC was the first king of ancient Aeacus (also spelled Eäcus, Greek, "bewailing" or "earth borne" was a mythological king of the island of Aegina In Greek mythology, Neoptolemus (also Neoptólemos or Pyrrhus; Greek Νεοπτόλημος "New War" was the son of the warrior Achilles "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. [7] Plutarch relates that both Philip and Olympias dreamt of their son's future birth. In Philip's dream, he sealed her womb with the seal of the lion. The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera. Alarmed by this, he consulted the seer Aristander of Telmessos, who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion. Aristander of Telmessos ( Greek: Αρίστανδρος ο Τελμησσεύς born ca [8] Another odd coincidence is that the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus was set afire on the night of his birth. The Temple of Artemis ( Greek: Ἀρτεμίσιον Ephesus ( Hittite Apasa; Ancient Greek; Turkish Efes) was a city of ancient Anatolia. Plutarch's explanation is that the Gods were too busy watching over Alexander to care for the temple. The Twelve Olympians, also known as the Dodekatheon ( Greek: Δωδεκάθεον
According to five historians of antiquity (Arrian, Curtius, Diodorus, Justin, and Plutarch), after his visit to the Oracle of Ammon at Siwa, rumors spread that the Oracle had revealed Alexander's father to be Zeus, rather than Philip. For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian who is generally thought to have written his works during the reign of Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD Justin (Latin Marcus Junianius (or Junianus) Justinus) was a Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion an Infallible authority usually spiritual in nature Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων The Siwa Oasis (واحة سيوة Wāḥat Sīwah, from Berber Siwa "prey bird protector of the sun god Amon-Ra Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In support of this, Plutarch (Alexander 3. 1,3) claims that Philip avoided Olympias' bed because of her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes.
In his early years, Alexander was raised by his nurse Lanike, who was Cleitus' older sister. Lanike (born ca 380 BC also called Hellanike or Alacrinis, was the sister of Clitus the Black and the nurse of Alexander the Great. Cleitus the Black ( Κλείτος ο Μέλας) (ca 375 BC-328 BC was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. Later, Alexander was educated by a strict teacher: Leonidas, himself a relative of Olympias. Leonidas was one of Alexander the Great 's early tutors He was chosen by Alexander's mother Olympias, most likely because of his relation to her Leonidas' frugal ways are known to us through the extant record: reportedly, when Alexander threw a large amount of sacrificial incense into a fire, Leonidas reprimanded him, telling him that he could waste as much incense as he wished once he had conquered the spice bearing regions. Years later, following Alexander's conquest of Gaza, a city directly on the Persian spice trade route, the young king sent back over 15 tons of myrrh to Leonidas as a retort. Myrrh is a reddish-brown Resinous material the dried sap of the tree Commiphora myrrha, native to Yemen, Somalia It was Aristotle, though, who was Alexander's most famous and important tutor. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The famous philosopher trained Alexander in rhetoric and literature, and stimulated his interest in science, medicine, and philosophy. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language His gift to Alexander, a copy of the Iliad, was purportedly among the young king's most prized possessions—and was kept under his pillow, along with a dagger. The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient
When Alexander was ten years old, a Thessalian brought a horse of such quality to sell to Philip that it was labeled a prodigy. Thessalia redirects here For the Butterfly Genus, see Thessalia (butterfly. As it turned out, though, the horse was so wild that no man could mount him. Young Alexander, recognizing that the horse's own shadow was the source of its fear, went to the steed and turned him towards the sun. Upon doing so, the horse calmed down, and the young king easily mounted and rode him. His father and other people who saw this were very impressed; Philip kissed him with tears of joy and said "My son, seek thee out a kingdom equal to thyself; Macedon has not room for thee. " This horse was named Bucephalus, meaning "ox-headed"—though there is the possibility that the name refers to the brand that denoted the horse's origin. For the branding mark anciently used on horses see Bucephalus (brand. Bucephalus would be Alexander's companion throughout his journeys, and was truly loved: when the horse died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, for he was already 30; other sources claim that Bucephalus died of wounds sustained in a battle in India), Alexander named a city after him called Bocephia or Bucephala.
Ascent of Macedon
In 340 BC, Philip led an attack on Byzantium, leaving Alexander, now aged 16, to act as regent of Macedon. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Shortly after, in 339 BC, Philip took a fifth wife, Cleopatra Eurydice. Eurydice ( Ευρυδικη) born Cleopatra ( Κλεοπάτρα) While Alexander's mother Olympias was from Epirus, Cleopatra Eurydice was a true Macedonian; this led to political machinations over whether Alexander was the best heir for the Agead throne. Olympias (in Greek, Ὀλυμπιάς; ca 376&ndash316 BC was an Epirote Princess, the fourth wife of the king Philip II of During the wedding feast, Attalus, the uncle of the bride, supposedly gave a toast for the marriage to result in a legitimate heir to the throne of Macedon. Attalus (in Greek Άτταλος, ca 390 BC &ndash 336 BC important courtier of Macedonian king Philip II of Macedonia. Alexander responded by hurling his goblet at Attalus, shouting "What am I, a bastard then?" In response, Phillip drew his sword and moved towards Alexander, but fell in a drunken stupor over the drinking couches. Alexander then famously remarked: "Here is the man planning on conquering from Greece to Asia, and he cannot even move from one table to another. " Following this episode, Alexander and his mother left Macedon; his sister (also named Cleopatra) remained. See Cleopatra (disambiguation for other people with or meanings of the name
Eventually Philip and Alexander would reconcile; the son returned home, but Olympias remained in Epirus. In 338 BC Alexander fought under his father at the decisive Battle of Chaeronea against the city-states of Athens and Thebes. The Battle of Chaeronea 338 BC, fought near Chaeronea, in Boeotia, was the greatest victory of Philip II of Macedon. The city of Athens during Classical antiquity was a notable Polis ( City-state) of Attica, Greece, leading the Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides Phillip entrusted Alexander with the left wing of his army, which entailed facing the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite hoplite corps hitherto regarded as invincible. The Sacred Band of Thebes ( Ancient Greek: Hierós Lókhos tón Thebón was a troop of picked soldiers numbering 150 age-structured pairs which formed Though few details of the battle survive to us, what is known is that Alexander annihilated this corps. After the battle, Philip led a wild celebration; Alexander is notably absent from the accounts describing it. It is speculated that Alexander personally treated Demades, a notable orator of Athens, who had opposed Athenian alignment against Philip. He went on to draw up and present a peace plan, which the assembled Athenian army voted on and approved. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of its dominion over Boeotia and leave a Macedonian garrison in the citadel. Boeotia, Beotia, or Bœotia ( Greek: Βοιωτία - English biːˈoʊʃiə formerly Cadmeis was a region of Ancient Greece, north of the A few months later, the League of Corinth was formed, and Phillip was acclaimed Hegemon of the Hellenes. The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League (original name Hellenes - 'The Greeks' was a federation of Greek states created by Philip
In 336 BC Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to her uncle King Alexander of Epirus. See Cleopatra (disambiguation for other people with or meanings of the name Alexander I of Epirus (ca 370 BC - ca 331 BC also known as Alexander Molossus was a king of Epirus (350 BC-331 BC of the Aeacid dynasty. Theories abound regarding the motives behind the killing, but a common story presented the assassin as a disgraced former lover of the king—the young nobleman Pausanias of Orestis. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. Pausanias of Orestis (Greek was a member of Philip II of Macedon 's Somatophylakes, his personal bodyguard He held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored his grievances regarding an outrage on his person. Some believed that Philip's murder was planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander, Olympias, or both. Still other theories pointed to Darius III, the recently crowned King of Persia. Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Regardless, after Philip's death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 20, as the new king of Macedon.
Greek cities like Athens and Thebes, which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the relatively untested new king an opportunity to regain full independence. Alexander moved swiftly and Thebes, which had been most active against him, submitted when he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth, with the exception of the Spartans, elected him to the command against Persia, which had previously been bestowed upon his father. The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη The next year (335 BC), Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians in order to secure the Danube as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. "Thracians" also refers to modern inhabitants of Thrace, regardless of ethnicity Illyrians has come to refer to a broad ill-defined " Indo-European " group of peoples who inhabited the western Balkans ( Illyria, roughly The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor. The resistance was useless; in the end, the city was conquered with great bloodshed. Thebes was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, the Thebans themselves were sold into slavery; Alexander spared only the priests, the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party, and the descendants of Pindar, whose house was the only one left standing. Pindar (ˈpɪndɚ (or Pindarus, Greek:) (probably born 522 BC in Cynoscephalae a village in Boeotia; died 443 BC in Argos) was an Ancient
The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission. According to Plutarch, a special Athenian embassy led by Phocion, an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to give up his demand for the exile of leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, most particularly Demosthenes. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Phocion (in Greek Φωκίων, also called Phokion, c402 - c318 BC nicknamed The Good) was an Athenian Statesman and For the Athenian general see Demosthenes (general. For the ancient physician see Demosthenes Philalethes. [9]
Period of conquests
Fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont with approximately 42,000 soldiers from Macedon, various Greek city-states, and mercenaries and tribute soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. See also Dardanelles Hellespont ( Turkish, Greek; ie "Sea of Helle" variously named in classical literature Hellespontium Pelagus Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe For the flower genus see Peony. Paionia or Paeonia (Παιονία was in ancient geography the land of the Paeonians Illyria ( Albanian Iliria ( Ancient Greek; Latin Illyria; see also Illyricum) was in Classical antiquity a region in the After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast. The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. Sardis, also Sardes ( Lydian: Sfard, Greek: Σάρδεις, Persian: Sparda) modern Sart in Geography Physical Ionia was of small extent not exceeding 90 geographical miles in length from north to south with a breadth varying from 40 to 55 miles but to this At Halicarnassus, Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Halicarnassus (Άλικαρνᾱσσός &mdash Halikarnassós or Ἁλικαρνασσός &mdash Alikarnassós Halikarnas modern Memnon of Rhodes (380 &ndash 333 BC was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian king Darius III when Alexander the Great See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient Municipalities of Caria Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in Classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources Orontobates (in Greek Ὀρoντoβάτης lived 4th century BC) was a Persian, who married the daughter of Pixodarus, the usurping Satrap Alexander left Caria in the hands of Ada, who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother Pixodarus. Ada of Caria (Ἄδα in Greek ( fl 377 – 326 BC) was Satrap of Caria in the 4th century BC Pixodarus (in Greek Πιξώδαρoς ruled 340&ndash335 BC a prince or king of Caria, was the youngest of the three sons of Hecatomnus, all of whom From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. "Sidyma" redirects here For the Moth Genus named thus see Sidyma (moth. Origins of the Pamphylians There can be little doubt that the Pamphylians and Pisidians were the same people though the former had received colonies from Greece and other From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. Termessos or Thermessos (Θερμεσσός was a Pisidian city built at an altitude of more than 1000 meters at the south-west side of the mountain Solymos (modern Geography Although close to Mediterranean Sea on the map the warm climate of the south cannot pass the height of the Taurus Mountains. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia. Gordium (Greek Gordion, Turkish Gordiyon) was the capital of ancient Phrygia. The Gordian Knot is a Legend associated with Alexander the Great. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black " According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but simply realized that the simplest way to undo the knot was to simply remove a central peg from the chariot—around which the knot was tied.
Alexander's army crossed the Cilician Gates, met and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. The Alexander Mosaic or The Battle of Issus, dating from circa 200 BC is a famous Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii. The Battle of Issus (or more commonly The Battle at Issus) occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The House of the Faun (Casa del Fauno built during the second century BCE was one of the largest most impressive Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples and Caserta in the Italian region of Campania, in The Cilician Gates ( Turkish: Gülek Boğazı, "Gülek Pass" form the main pass through the Taurus Mountains of southern Turkey Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of The Battle of Issus (or more commonly The Battle at Issus) occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. Darius was forced to flee the battle after his army broke, and in doing so left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous amount of treasure. Sisygambis was the daughter of king Artaxerxes II Memnon, who married Arsames of Ostanes and was the mother of Darius III of Persia, whose reign was ended during He afterwards offered a peace treaty to Alexander, the concession of the lands he had already conquered, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions. Proceeding down the Mediterranean coast, he took Tyre and Gaza after famous sieges (see Siege of Tyre). The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base in the war between the Greeks and the Persians.
During 332–331 BC, Alexander was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt and was pronounced the son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion an Infallible authority usually spiritual in nature The Siwa Oasis (واحة سيوة Wāḥat Sīwah, from Berber Siwa "prey bird protector of the sun god Amon-Ra Ancient Libya was the region west of the Nile Valley. It corresponds to what is now generally called Northwest Africa. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and subsequent currency depicted him, adorned with ram horns as a symbol of his divinity. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια The Ptolemaic dynasty (sometimes also known as the Lagids, from the name of Ptolemy I's father Lagus) was a Hellenistic Macedonian royal family
Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into Assyria (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius once more at the Battle of Gaugamela. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Battle of Gaugamela (ˌgɔːgəˈmiːlə (Γαυγάμηλα took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great of Macedonia and Darius III Once again, Darius was forced to leave the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Arbil (also written Erbil or Irbil; BGN: Arbīl; Kurdish: ههولێر Hewlêr While Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), Alexander marched to Babylon. Ecbatana ( Old Persian: Haŋgmatana, written Agbatana in Aeschylus and Herodotus, Agámtanu by Nabonidos Hamedān or Hamadān ( Persian: همدان, Old Persian: Hagmatana Hebrew: המזיין Ancient Greek: Ecbatana) Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its legendary treasury. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Sending the bulk of his army to the Persian capital of Persepolis via the Royal Road, Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains), then sprinted for Persepolis before its treasury could be looted. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Persian Gates was the ancient name of the pass now known as Tang-e Meyran, connecting Yasuj with Sedeh to the east crossing the border of the modern The Zagros Mountains (جبال زاجروس (رشته كوههاى زاگرس ( Sorani Kurdish: Zagros - زاگرۆس make up Iran 's and Iraq 's It was here that Alexander was said to have stared at the crumbled statue of Xerxes and decided to leave it on the ground—a symbolic gesture of vengeance. During their stay at the capital, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city. Xerxes I of Persia was a King of Persia (reigned 485–465 BC of the Achaemenid dynasty. Theories abound as to whether this was the result of a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War. The Acropolis of Athens is the best known Acropolis (high city The "Sacred Rock" in the world The Book of Arda Wiraz, a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing "all the Avesta and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink" that were destroyed; but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism, because it is generally thought that for many centuries the Avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the Magi. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish
Alexander then set off in pursuit of Darius anew. The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central Ürümchi or Ürümqi, sometimes spelled Wulumuqi (English uːˈruːmtʃi ئۈرۈمچی|Ürümchi) is the capital of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Persian king was no longer in control of his destiny, having been taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. Bessus (died summer 329 BC was a Persian nobleman and Satrap of Bactria, and later contender king of Persia "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc With the death of Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance over, and released his Greek and other allies from service in the League campaign (although he allowed those that wished to re-enlist as mercenaries in his army). A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by
His three-year campaign, first against Bessus and then against Spitamenes, the satrap of Sogdiana, took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia. Spitamenes (in old Persian Spitamaneh; born 370 BC and killed 328 BC was a Persian courtier in the Persian province of Sogdiana involved in the collapse History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Drangiana (Δραγγιανή from Old Persian: Zranka "waterland") was a historical region of the Achaemenid Empire, now part of Afghanistan Arachosia (ˌærəˈkoʊʒə, Arakhōsia) or Arachotae (əˈrækəˌtiː, Arakhōtai) is the latinized form of Greek name of an Achaemenid "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th In the process of doing so, he captured and refounded Herat and Maracanda. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Moreover, he founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Alexandria Eschate ( Greek, Latin Alexandria Ultima English meaning "Alexandria the Furthest" was founded by Alexander the Great in August 329 BCE Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of In the end, both of his opponents were defeated after having been betrayed by their men—Bessus in 329 BC, and Spitamenes the year after.
Hostility
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, a symbolic kissing of the hand that Persians paid to their social superiors, but a practice that the Greeks disapproved. Proskynesis, ( Greek) formed from the Ancient Greek words pros and kuneo literally means "kissing towards" and refers The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always This cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Here, too, a plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to bring the plot to his attention. Philotas (in Greek, Φιλώτας, d October 330 BC was the eldest son of Parmenion, Alexander's most experienced and talented general The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated by command of Alexander, so he might not make attempts at vengeance. Parmenion (also Parmenio) (in Greek, Παρμενίων, ca 400&ndash Ecbatana, 330 BC was a Macedonian general in the service Ecbatana ( Old Persian: Haŋgmatana, written Agbatana in Aeschylus and Herodotus, Agámtanu by Nabonidos Most infamously, Alexander personally slew the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a drunken argument at Maracanda. Cleitus the Black ( Κλείτος ο Μέλας) (ca 375 BC-328 BC was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Later in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. A page or page boy is a traditionally young male servant. The medieval page In medieval times, a page was an attendant to a Knight His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce proskynesis), was implicated in the plot, however, there never has been consensus among historians regarding his involvement in the conspiracy. Callisthenes of Olynthus (in Greek; ca 360-328 BC was a Greek Historian. For the Butterfly Genus, see Olynthus (butterfly. Olynthus ( Greek: Όλυνθος olunthos, a fig
Invasion of India
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in 326 BC Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent. Spitamenes (in old Persian Spitamaneh; born 370 BC and killed 328 BC was a Persian courtier in the Persian province of Sogdiana involved in the collapse Roxana ( Bactrian, Persian: Roshanak; Bactrian definition literally "luminous beauty" Persian definition "the dawn" was a The Bactrian language is an extinct Eastern Iranian language which was spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to come to him and submit to his authority. A traditional tribal chief is the leader of a Tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Ambhi (Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek:Hydaspes), complied. Taxiles (in Greek Tαξίλης or Ταξίλας lived 4th century BC) was the Greek chroniclers' name for a prince or king who reigned over the tract For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd But the chieftains of some hill clans including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (classical names), known in Indian texts as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas (names referring to the equestrian nature of their society from the Sanskrit root word Ashva meaning horse), refused to submit. The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire Eurasian Nomads are a large group of peoples of the Eurasian Steppe. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical
Alexander personally took command of the shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians and horse-javelin-men and led them against the Kamboja clans—the Aspasioi of Kunar/Alishang valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A clan is a group of People united by Kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire Kunar Valley (کنار وادی or Chitral Valley is a Valley in Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The Panjkora River rises rises high in the Hindu Kush at lat 35 Buner may refer to Buner Valley Buner District Buner Pakistan (town Writes one modern historian: "They were brave people and it was hard work for Alexander to take their strongholds, of which Massaga and Aornus need special mention. "[10][11] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry and 30 elephants. A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat [12] They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds like cities of Ora, Bazira and Massaga. Barikot is a city in the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, located in the Swat valley region (ancient Udyana) The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother Cleophis (q. A traditional tribal chief is the leader of a Tribe, or the head of a tribal form of self-government Cleophis ( Sanskrit: Kripa ? was the mother of Assakenos or Assacanus, the reigning war-leader of the Assakenoi or Assacani v. ) who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting. [13][14] Alexander could only reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles. " A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi.
In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians people fled to a high fortress called Aornos. The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire Alexander followed them close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort but only after the fourth day of a bloody fight. The story of Massaga was repeated at Aornos and a similar carnage of the tribal-people followed here too.
Writing on Alexander's campaign against the Assakenoi, Victor Hanson comments: "After promising the surrounded Assacenis their lives upon capitulation, he executed all their soldiers who had surrendered. Victor Davis Hanson (born 1953 in Fowler California) is a Military historian, Columnist, political essayist and former Classics professor notable Their strongholds at Ora and Aornus were also similarly stormed. Garrisons were probably all slaughtered. ”[15]
Sisikottos, who had helped Alexander in this campaign, was made the governor of Aornos. After reducing Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and is believed to have won an epic battle against a local ruler Porus (original Indian name Raja Puru), who ruled a region in the Punjab, in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC. Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The Battle of the Hydaspes River was a Battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus (Pururava
After the battle, Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle, and therefore made an alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom, even adding some land he did not own before. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of the horse who had brought him to India, who had died during the Battle of Hydaspes. The Battle of the Hydaspes River was a Battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus (Pururava Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the Indus River.
East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River (original Indian name Ganga), was the powerful empire of Magadha ruled by the Nanda dynasty. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. The Nanda dynasty ruled Magadha during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Fearing the prospects of facing another powerful Indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march further east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests:
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants.
Alexander, after the meeting with his officer Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. Alexander was forced to turn south. Along the way his army ran into the Malli clans (in modern day Multan). "Malli" redirects here for the village in Azerbaijan see Mallı; Malli is also the word for Coriander leaves in Tamil & Malayalam ( Urdu:, Punjabi ملتان، ਮੁਲਤਾਨ is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District The Malli were the most warlike clans in South Asia during that period. Alexander's army challenged the Malli, and the ensuing battle led them to the Malli citadel. During the assault, Alexander himself was wounded seriously by a Mallian arrow. [17][18] His forces, believing their king dead, took the citadel and unleashed their fury on the Malli who had taken refuge within it, perpetrating a massacre, sparing neither man, woman nor child. [19] Following this, the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander's forces, and his beleaguered army moved on. He sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern Iran and Makran now part of Pakistan). Kermān is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. It is in the south-east of the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. For other uses, see Craterus (disambiguation Craterus (ca 370 BC - 321 BC Greek: Κρατερός) was a Macedonian general The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the Nearchus (or Nearchos) (c 360 - 300 BC was one of the officers a Navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. Gedrosia (dʒɨˈdroʊʒə Γεδρωσία is the ancient name of an area that corresponds to today's Balochistan For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Makran ( Urdu / Persian: مکران) is a semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Balochistan, in Iran and Pakistan, along Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and
Alexander left forces in India however. In the territory of the Indus, he nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles. Peithon son of Agenor (?-312 BCE was an officer in the expedition of Alexander the Great to India, who became satrap of the Indus from 325 to 316 BCE and then satrap See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Eudemus (in Greek Eύδημoς; died 316 BC was one of Alexander the Great 's generals who was appointed by him to the command of the troops left in Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in Taxiles (in Greek Tαξίλης or Ταξίλας lived 4th century BC) was the Greek chroniclers' name for a prince or king who reigned over the tract Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek satraps. Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military
After India
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to Susa. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia under Craterus, but his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis, refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Opis (Akkadian Upî or Upija; Greek Ὦπις was an ancient Babylonian city on the Tigris, not far from modern Baghdad. Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.
His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training a regiment of Persian boys in the ways of Macedonians. Most historians believe that Alexander adopted the Persian royal title of Shahanshah (meaning: "The King of Kings"). Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages
It is claimed that Alexander wanted to overrun or integrate the Arabian peninsula, but this theory is widely disputed. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) It was assumed that Alexander would turn westwards and attack Carthage and Italy, had he conquered Arabia. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
After traveling to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possibly lover[20] Hephaestion died of an illness, or possibly of poisoning. Hephaestion ( Greek:, alternative spelling "Hephaistion" c Alexander mourned Hephaestion for six months.
Death
On the afternoon of June 11, 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Nebuchadrezzar II, more often called Nebuchadnezzar (c 630-562 BC was a ruler of Babylon in the Chaldean Dynasty, who reigned c Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq He was just one month short of attaining 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include poisoning by the sons of Antipater or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. Antipater ( Greek: Ἀντίπατρος Antipatros; ca 397 BC — 319 BC was a Macedonian general and a supporter of kings Philip II of Macedon Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including
It is known that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend Medius of Larissa. Medius (in Greek Mηδιoς; lived 4th century BC) son of Oxythemis was a native of Larissa in Thessaly and a friend of Alexander Larissa ( Greek: Λάρισα, Lárisa) is the capital city of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the After some heavy drinking, immediately before or after a bath, he was forced into bed due to severe illness. The rumors of his illness circulated with the troops causing them to be more and more anxious. On June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time. Because the king was too ill to speak, he confined himself to moving his hand. The day after, Alexander was dead.
Cause
The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that Cassander, son of Antipater, viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, Iollas, brother of Cassander, administered it. Cassander ( Greek: Κάσσανδρος, Kassandros; ca 350 - 297 BC King of Macedon (305 - 297 BC was a son of Antipater Iollas (in Greek Ioλλας or Ioλας; lived 4th century BC) son of Antipater, and brother of Cassander, king of Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and strychnine. Commonly known as Hellebores, members of the genus Helleborus comprise approximately 20 species (ongoing fieldwork may see this figure change of Herbaceous Strychnine (ˈstrɪkniːn (British US /-naɪn/ or /-nɪn/ (US In R. Lane Fox's opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available.
The warrior culture of Macedon favoured the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like Plutarch and Arrian, maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes. For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca Instead, it is likely that Alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including acute pancreatitis or the West Nile virus. Acute Pancreatitis is a sudden Inflammation of the Pancreas. Depending on its severity it can have severe complications and high mortality despite West Nile virus (or WNV is a Virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE antigenic complex of viruses it is found in [6] Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease. Hellebore, believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results. Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in India that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him.
No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 10 or 11 of 323 BC. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem
Successor
On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Since Alexander had no obvious and legitimate heir (his son Alexander IV would be born after his death, and his other son was by a concubine, not a wife), it was a question of vital importance. Alexander IV Aegus (in Greek, Ἀλέξανδρος Aἰγός &mdash 323&ndash309 BC was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon There is some debate to what Alexander replied. Some believe that Alexander said, "Kratisto" (that is, "To the strongest!") or "Krat'eroi" (to the stronger).
Alexander may have said, "Krater'oi" (to Craterus). For other uses, see Craterus (disambiguation Craterus (ca 370 BC - 321 BC Greek: Κρατερός) was a Macedonian general This is possible because the Greek pronunciation of "the stronger" and "Craterus" differ only by the position of the accented syllable. Most scholars believe that if Alexander did intend to choose one of his generals, his obvious choice would have been Craterus because he was the commander of the largest part of the army (infantry), because he had proven himself to be an excellent strategist, and because he displayed traits of the "ideal" Macedonian. But Craterus was not around, and the others may have chosen to hear "Krat'eroi" — the stronger. Regardless of his reply, Craterus does not appear to have pressed the issue. The empire then split amongst his successors (the Diadochi). The Diadochi (plural of Latin Diadochus, from Greek Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, "successors" were the rival successors
Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, and no contemporaneous source can be fully trusted.
Body
Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus, which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. A sarcophagus is a Funeral receptacle for a Corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armour, in a gold carriage that had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The Ionic order column forms one of the three '''orders''' or '''organizational systems''' of Classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the The decoration of the carriage was very lavish and is described in great detail by Diodoros.
According to one legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of honey (which can act as a preservative) and interred in a glass coffin. Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the A coffin (also known as a casket in North American English) is a funerary Box used in the display and containment of deceased remains – either for According to Aelian (Varia Historia 12. 64), Ptolemy stole the body and brought it to Alexandria, where it was on display until Late Antiquity. For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in It was here that Ptolemy IX, one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. Ptolemy IX Soter II or Lathyros (" Chickpea " ( Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Σωτήρ Λάθυρος, Ptolemaĩos Sōtḗr The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after, Ptolemy IX was killed.
The Roman emperor Caligula was said to have looted the tomb, stealing Alexander's breastplate, and wearing it. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor Around 200 AD, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor His son and successor, Caracalla, was a great admirer of Alexander, and visited the tomb in his own reign. Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later After this, details on the fate of the tomb are sketchy.
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus," discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is now generally thought to be that of Abdylonymus, whom Hephaestion had appointed as the king of Sidon by Alexander's order. The Alexander Sarcophagus is a 4th century BC stone Sarcophagus adorned with Bas-relief carvings of Alexander the Great. Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Abdylonymus was a gardener for the Persian Satrap of Sidon in the 3rd century BC The sarcophagus depicts Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians.
Testament
Some classical authors, such as Diodorus, relate that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. For other uses, see Craterus (disambiguation Craterus (ca 370 BC - 321 BC Greek: Κρατερός) was a Macedonian general Although Craterus had already started to implement Alexander's orders, such as the building of a fleet in Cilicia for expedition against Carthage, Alexander's successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds that they were impractical and extravagant. Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers [21] The testament, described in Diodorus XVIII, called for military expansion into the Southern and Western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. Its most remarkable items were:
- The completion of a pyre to Hephaestion
- The building of "a thousand warships, larger than triremes, in Phoenicia, Syria, Cilicia, and Cyprus for the campaign against the Carthaginians and the other who live along the coast of Libya and Iberia and the adjoining coastal regions as far as Sicily"
- The building of a road in northern Africa as far as the Pillars of Heracles, with ports and shipyards along it. Hephaestion ( Greek:, alternative spelling "Hephaistion" c Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The Pillars of Hercules was the phrase that was applied in Antiquity to the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar.
- The erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, Cyrnus and Ilium. The island of Delos ( Greek: Δήλος Dhilos) isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the Cyclades, near Mykonos Delphi ( Greek,) ( pronounce and dialectal forms) is an archaeological site and a modern town in Greece on the south-western Dodona (from Doric Greek Δωδώνα Ionic Greek: Δωδώνη - Dodone) in Epirus in northwestern Greece, was a prehistoric Dion (Greek Modern Δίο Dio, Ancient/Katharevousa -on is a municipality and village in the Prefecture of Pieria, Macedonia, Greece, best Amphipolis (Ἀμφίπολις &ndash Amphípolis) was an ancient Greek city in the region once inhabited by the Edoni people Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or
- The construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"
- The establishment of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties. Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point " (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historia, XVIII)
Personal life
Alexander's lifelong companion was Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Alexander the Great ' s lifelong companion was Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble Hephaestion ( Greek:, alternative spelling "Hephaistion" c Hephaestion also held the position of second-in-command of Alexander's forces until his death, which devastated Alexander. The full extent of his relationship with Hephaestion is the subject of much historical speculation.
Alexander married two women: Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian nobleman, Oxyartes, and Stateira, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia. Roxana ( Bactrian, Persian: Roshanak; Bactrian definition literally "luminous beauty" Persian definition "the dawn" was a "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Oxyartes (in Persian: وخشارد Vaxš-ard from Vaxšuvadarva was a Bactrian father of Roxana, the wife of Alexander of Macedon. Stateira II ( creation of the stars) was daughter of Stateira I and Darius III of Persia, sister of Drypteis, and granddaughter Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of There is also an accepted tradition of a third wife- Parysatis whom he is supposed to have married in Persia though nothing is known about her. Another personage from the court of Darius III with whom he was intimate was the male eunuch Bagoas. Bagoas (in Old Persian Bagoi) was a Eunuch in the Persian Empire in the 4th Century BCE His son by Roxana, Alexander IV of Macedon, was killed after the death of his father, before he reached adulthood. Alexander IV Aegus (in Greek, Ἀλέξανδρος Aἰγός &mdash 323&ndash309 BC was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon
Alexander was admired during his lifetime for treating all his lovers humanely. [22][23]
Legacy and division of the empire
After Alexander's death, in 323 BC, the rule of his Empire was given to Alexander's half-brother Philip Arridaeus and Alexander's son Alexander IV. Philip III Arrhidaeus ( Greek:; ca 359 BC &ndash December 25, 317 BC king of Macedon from June 10 323 BC until his death was a son of King Philip However, since Philip was apparently feeble-minded and the son of Alexander still a baby, two regents were named in Perdiccas (who had received Alexander's ring at his death) and Craterus (who may have been the one mentioned as successor by Alexander), although Perdiccas quickly managed to take sole power. Perdiccas ( Greek: Περδίκας, Perdikas; died 321 BC or 320 BC was one of Alexander the Great 's generals For other uses, see Craterus (disambiguation Craterus (ca 370 BC - 321 BC Greek: Κρατερός) was a Macedonian general
Perdiccas soon eliminated several of his opponents, killing about 30 (Diodorus Siculus), and at the Partition of Babylon named former generals of Alexander as satraps of the various regions of his Empire. The Partition of Babylon designates the attribution of the territories by Alexander the Great between his generals soon after his death in 323 BCE. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient In 321 BC Perdiccas was assassinated by his own troops during his conflict with Ptolemy, leading to the Partition of Triparadisus, in which Antipater was named as the new regent, and the satrapies again shared between the various generals. For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. The Partition of Triparadisus was a power-sharing agreement passed at Triparadisus in 321 BCE between the generals ( Diadochi) of Alexander the Great Antipater ( Greek: Ἀντίπατρος Antipatros; ca 397 BC — 319 BC was a Macedonian general and a supporter of kings Philip II of Macedon From that time, Alexander's officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states.
Ultimately, the conflict was settled after the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia in 301 BC. The Battle of Ipsus was fought between some of the Diadochi (the successors of Alexander the Great) in 301 BC near the village of that name in In antiquity Phrygia (Φρυγία was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. Alexander's empire was divided at first into four major portions: Cassander ruled in Macedon, Lysimachus in Thrace, Seleucus in Mesopotamia and Persia, and Ptolemy I Soter in the Levant and Egypt. Cassander ( Greek: Κάσσανδρος, Kassandros; ca 350 - 297 BC King of Macedon (305 - 297 BC was a son of Antipater Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Lysimachus ( Greek: Λυσίμαχος Lysimachos; 360 BCE - 281 BCE was a Macedonian officer and diadochus (i Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Seleucus I (surnamed for later generations Nicator, Greek: Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ, i Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Antigonus ruled for a while in Anatolia and Syria but was eventually defeated by the other generals at Ipsus (301 BC). Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed" (382 BC - 301 BC son of Philip from Elimeia, was a Macedonian nobleman general and Satrap Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Control over Indian territory passed to Chandragupta Maurya, the first Maurya emperor, who further expanded his dominions after a settlement with Seleucus. Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military
By 270 BC, the Hellenistic states were consolidated, with
-
- The Antigonid Empire in Greece;
- The Seleucid Empire in Mesopotamia and Persia;
- The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, Palestine and Cyrenaica
By the 1st century BC though, most of the Hellenistic territories in the West had been absorbed by the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the In the East, they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the Parthian Empire. The territories further east seceded to form the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-140 BC), which further expanded into India to form the Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BC-10 AD). The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries
The Ptolemy dynasty persisted in Egypt until the epoch of the queen Cleopatra, best known for her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, just before the Roman republic officially became the Roman Empire. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
Alexander's conquests also had long term cultural effects, with the flourishing of Hellenistic civilization throughout the Middle East and Central Asia, and the development of Greco-Buddhist art in the Indian subcontinent. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural Syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Alexander and his successors were tolerant of non-Greek religious practices, and interesting syncretisms developed in the new Greek towns he founded in Central Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The first realistic portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time; they are reminiscent of Greek statues of Apollo. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion; the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes,[25] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices In the Buddhist context a bodhisattva (बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva;; Vietnamese Bồ Tát; बोधिसत्त bodhisatta Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for In Buddhism, symbolic offerings are made to the Triple Gem, giving rise to contemplative gratitude and inspiration Zen Buddhism draws in part on the ideas of Greek stoics, such as Zeno. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Zeno of Citium (Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs) (334 BC - 262 BC was a Greek Philosopher from Citium (Κίτιον [26]
Among other effects, the Hellenistic, or koine dialect of Greek became the lingua franca throughout the so-called civilized world. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely For instance the standard version of the Hebrew Scriptures used among the Jews of the diaspora, especially in Egypt, during the life of Jesus was the Greek Septuagint translation, which was compiled ca 200 BC by seventy-odd scholars under the patronage of the Macedonian ruler Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic The term Diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά &ndash " a scattering or sowing of seeds " refers any population sharing common ethnic Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( Greek:, Ptolemaĩos Philádelphos, 309 BC&ndash246 BC was the king of Ptolemaic Egypt from 283 BC to 246 BC Thus many Jews from Egypt or Rome would have trouble understanding the teachings of the scholars in the Temple in Jerusalem who were using the Hebrew original text and an Aramaic translation, being themselves only acquainted with the Greek version. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Aramaic is a Semitic language with There has been much speculation on the issue whether Jesus spoke Koine Greek as the Gospel-writers, themselves writing in Greek, don't say anything decisive about the matter.
Influence on Ancient Rome
In the late Republic and early Empire, educated Roman citizens used Latin only for legal, political, and ceremonial purposes, and used Greek to discuss philosophy or any other intellectual topic. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that No Roman wanted to hear it said that his mastery of the Greek language was weak. Throughout the Roman world, the one language spoken everywhere was Alexander's Greek. [27]
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements, although very little is known about Roman-Macedonian diplomatic relations of that time. Julius Caesar wept in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander's statue, when asked to see other great military leaders Ceaser said Alexander was the only great one. Pompey the Great rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which the Roman general then wore as the costume of greatness. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation However, in his zeal to honor Alexander, Augustus accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero's shrine in Alexandria, Egypt. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The unbalanced emperor Caligula later took the dead king's armor from that tomb and donned it for luck. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor The Macriani, a Roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the 3rd century A. D. , always kept images of Alexander on their persons, either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments. Even their dinnerware bore Alexander's face, with the story of the king's life displayed around the rims of special bowls. [28]
In the summer of 1995, during the archaeological work of the season centered on excavating the remains of domestic architecture of early-Roman date, a statue of Alexander was recovered from the structure, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the 1st century AD and occupied until the 3rd century. [29]
Character
Modern opinion on Alexander has run the gamut from the idea that he believed he was on a divinely-inspired mission to unite the human race, to the view that he was a megalomaniac bent on world domination. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Megalomania (from the Greek word μεγαλομανία is a historical term for behavior characterized by Delusional fantasies of Wealth, power World domination (sometimes world conquest, global domination, or Colloquially taking over the world) in which a single political authority Such views tend to be anachronistic, and the sources allow for a variety of interpretations. An anachronism (from the Greek "ana" " ανά " "against anti-" and "chronos" " χρόνος " Much about Alexander's personality and aims remains enigmatic. There were no disinterested commentators in Alexander's own time or soon afterward, so all accounts need to be read with skepticism.
Alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in Europe and much of both Southwest Asia and Central Asia, where he is known as Iskander or Iskandar Zulkarnain. Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south To Zoroastrians, on the other hand, he is remembered as the conqueror of their first great empire and as the destroyer of Persepolis. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial Ancient sources are generally written with an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate his actual character. Most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following Gaugamela, but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the Greek stereotype of an orientalizing king. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group
The murder of his friend Cleitus, which Alexander deeply and immediately regretted, is often cited as a sign of his paranoia, as is his execution of Philotas and his general Parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him. Cleitus the Black ( Κλείτος ο Μέλας) (ca 375 BC-328 BC was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. There is also the view that this may have been more prudence than paranoia.
Modern Alexandrists continue to debate these same issues, among others, in modern times. One unresolved topic involves whether Alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests, or whether his purpose was primarily to rule the world.
Partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of Alexander, an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasizes some of Alexander's negative aspects. Some proponents of this view cite the destructions of Thebes, Tyre, Persepolis, and Gaza as examples of atrocities, and argue that Alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate. Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. It is further claimed, in response to the view that Alexander was generally tolerant of the cultures of those whom he conquered, that his attempts at cultural fusion were severely practical and that he never actually admired Persian art or culture. To this way of thinking, Alexander was, first and foremost, a general rather than a statesman.
Alexander's character also suffers from the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the bias and idealisms of their own time. Good examples are W. W. Tarn, who wrote during the late 19th century and early 20th century, and who saw Alexander in an extremely good light, and Peter Green, who wrote after World War II and for whom Alexander did little that was not inherently selfish or ambition-driven. Sir William Woodthorpe Tarn ( February 26, 1869 – November 7, 1957) was a British classical scholar and a writer Peter Green (born 1924 is a British Classical scholar noted for his Alexander to Actium, a general account of the Hellenistic Age World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Tarn wrote in an age where world conquest and warrior-heroes were acceptable, even encouraged, whereas Green wrote with the backdrop of the Holocaust and nuclear weapons. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.
Greek and Latin sources
There are numerous Greek and Latin texts about Alexander, as well as some non-Greek texts. The primary sources, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander, are all lost, apart from a few inscriptions and some letter-fragments of dubious authenticity. Contemporaries who wrote full accounts of his life include the historian Callisthenes, Alexander's general Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Nearchus, and Onesicritus. Callisthenes of Olynthus (in Greek; ca 360-328 BC was a Greek Historian. For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. Aristobulus of Cassandreia (ca 375 - 301 BC Greek Historian, son of Aristobulus probably a Phocian settled inCassandreia accompanied Nearchus (or Nearchos) (c 360 - 300 BC was one of the officers a Navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. Onesicritus (Ὀνησίκριτος a Greek historical writer (lived c Another influential account is by Cleitarchus who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. "Clitarchus" redirects here For the Stick insect Genus, see Clitarchus (phasmid. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. Timagenes was a Greek writer historian and teacher of Rhetoric. None of these works survives, but we do have later works based on these primary sources.
The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin.
- Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander in Greek) by the Greek historian Arrian of Nicomedia, writing in the 2nd century AD, and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. Anabasis Alexandri, the Campaigns of Alexander by Arrian is the most important source on Alexander the Great. For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens It is considered generally the most trustworthy source.
- Historiae Alexandri Magni, a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy;
- Life of Alexander (see Parallel Lives) and two orations On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see Moralia), by the Greek historian and biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian who is generally thought to have written his works during the reign of Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of The Moralia (gr Greek &mdash loosely translatable Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Chaeronea (Χαιρώνεια is a municipality in the Boeotia Prefecture, Greece.
- Bibliotheca historia (Library of world history), written in Greek by the Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Timagenes's work. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The books immediately before and after, on Philip and Alexander's "Successors," throw light on Alexander's reign.
- The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by Justin, which contains factual errors and is highly compressed. Justin (Latin Marcus Junianius (or Junianus) Justinus) was a Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire. It is difficult in this case to understand the source, since we only have an epitome, but it is thought that also Pompeius Trogus may have limited himself to use Timagenes for his Latin history. Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, known as Pompeius Trogus, Pompey Trogue, or Trogue Pompey, was a 1st century BC Roman historian of the Celtic
To these five main sources some scholars add the Metz Epitome, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania to India. Hyrcania was the the name of a Satrapy located in the territories of present day Golestan, Mazandaran, Gilan and part of Turkmenistan Much is also recounted incidentally in other authors, including Strabo, Athenaeus, Polyaenus, Aelian, and others. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Athenaeus ( Ancient Greek - Athếnaios Naukratios Latin Athenaeus Naucratita of Naucratis in Egypt Greek rhetorician and grammarian flourished For the Wasp Genus, see Polyaenus (wasp Polyaenus (in Aelianus Tacticus, Greek military writer of the 2nd century CE resident at Rome is sometimes confused with Claudius Aelianus
The "problem of the sources" is the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander-historians. In effect, each presents a different "Alexander", with details to suit. Arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects, while Curtius veers to a more private and darker Alexander. Plutarch can't resist a good story, light or dark. All, with the possible exception of Arrian, include a considerable level of fantasy, prompting Strabo to remark, "All who wrote about Alexander preferred the marvelous to the true. " Nevertheless, the sources tell us much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination. Perhaps Arrian's words are most appropriate:
- One account says that Hephaestion laid a wreath on the tomb of Patroclus; another that Alexander laid one on the tomb of Achilles, calling him a lucky man, in that he had Homer to proclaim his deeds and preserve his memory. And well might Alexander envy Achilles this piece of good fortune; for in his own case there was no equivalent: his one failure, the single break, as it were, in the long chain of his successes, was that he had no worthy chronicler to tell the world of his exploits.
Legend
Alexander was a legend in his own time. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Proskynesis, ( Greek) formed from the Ancient Greek words pros and kuneo literally means "kissing towards" and refers Writing after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, went so far as to invent a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. Onesicritus (Ὀνησίκριτος a Greek historical writer (lived c According to the mythological Greek Alexander Romance, Queen Thalestris of the Amazons brought 300 women to Alexander the Great The Amazons (in Greek, grc Ἀμαζόνες are a nation of all-female warriors in Classical and Greek mythology, who were possibly historical When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time. Lysimachus ( Greek: Λυσίμαχος Lysimachos; 360 BCE - 281 BCE was a Macedonian officer and diadochus (i " (Plutarch, Alexander' 46. 2)
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. Alexander romance is any of several collections of legends concerning the mythical exploits of Alexander the Great. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, exhibiting a plasticity unseen in "higher" literary forms. Latin and Syriac translations were made in Late Antiquity. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language From these, versions were developed in all the major languages of Europe and the Middle East, including Armenian, Georgian, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Hebrew, Serbian, Slavonic, Romanian, Hungarian, German, English, Italian, and French. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language, The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) a group of closely related Languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages Romanian or Daco-Romanian ( dated: Rumanian or Roumanian; self designation limba română, ˈlimba roˈmɨnə is a Romance Hungarian ( magyar nyelv) is a Uralic language (more specifically a Ugric language) unrelated to most other languages in Europe. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The "Romance" is regarded by many Western scholars as the source of the account of Alexander given in the Qur'an (Sura The Cave). Alexander in the Qur'an is a theory that holds that the character of Dhul-Qarnayn, mentioned in the Qur'an, is in fact Alexander the Great. Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded It is the source of many incidents in Ferdowsi's "Shahnama". Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc A Mongolian version is also extant. Some believe that, excepting certain religious texts, it is the most widely-read work of pre-modern times.
Alexander is also a character of Greek folklore (and other regions), as the protagonist of 'apocryphal' tales of bravery. A maritime legend says that his sister is a mermaid and asks the sailors if her brother is still alive. A mermaid is a Mythological aquatic creature that is half human half aquatic creature (e The unsuspecting sailor who answers truthfully arouses the mermaid's wrath and his boat perishes in the waves; a sailor mindful of the circumstances will answer "He lives and reigns, and conquers the world", and the sea about his boat will immediately calm. Alexander is also a character of a standard play in the Karagiozis repertory, "Alexander the Great and the Accursed Serpent". Karagiozis ( Greek: Καραγκιόζης, from Turkish: Karagöz) is a Shadow puppet and Fictional character The ancient Greek poet Adrianus composed an epic poem on the history of Alexander the Great, called the Alexandriad, which was probably still extant in the 10th century, but which is now lost to us. Adrianus (Gr) was a Greek poet who wrote an epic poem on the history of Alexander the Great, which was called the Alexandriad (
In the Bible
Daniel 8:5–8 and 21–22 states that a King of Greece will conquer the Medes and Persians but then die at the height of his power and have his kingdom broken into four kingdoms. This is sometimes taken as a reference to Alexander.
Alexander was briefly mentioned in the first Book of the Maccabees. 1 Maccabees is a deuterocanonical book written by a Jewish author after the restoration of an independent Jewish kingdom probably about 100 BC. All of Chapter 1, verses 1–7 was about Alexander and this serves as an introduction of the book. This explains how the Hellenistic influence reached the Land of Israel at that time. For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is
In the Qur'an
Alexander the Great sometimes is identified in Persian and Arabic traditions sources as Dhul-Qarnayn, Arabic for the "Two-Horned One", possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn-headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient Middle Eastern coinage. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. This article refers to the Russian-made missile For the Abkhaz writer see Fazil Iskander. Alexander in the Qur'an is a theory that holds that the character of Dhul-Qarnayn, mentioned in the Qur'an, is in fact Alexander the Great. Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic ذو القرنين dhū al-qarnayn) literally meaning "He of the Two Horns" is a figure mentioned in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture Accounts of Dhul-Qarnayn appear in the Qur'an, and so may refer to Alexander. Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic ذو القرنين dhū al-qarnayn) literally meaning "He of the Two Horns" is a figure mentioned in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran
References to Alexander may also be found in the Persian tradition. The same traditions from the Pseudo-Callisthenes were combined in Persia with Sassanid Persian ideas about Alexander in the Iskandarnamah. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Alexander in the Qur'an is a theory that holds that the character of Dhul-Qarnayn, mentioned in the Qur'an, is in fact Alexander the Great. In this tradition, Alexander built a wall of iron and melted copper in which Gog and Magog are confined. The tradition of Gog and Magog ( Hebrew גוג ומגוג Arabic يأجوج و مأجوج begins in the Hebrew Bible with the reference to
Some Muslim scholars disagree that Alexander was Dhul-Qarnayn. Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic ذو القرنين dhū al-qarnayn) literally meaning "He of the Two Horns" is a figure mentioned in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture There are actually some theories that Dhul-Qarnayn was a Persian King with a vast Empire as well, possibly King Cyrus the Great. Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic ذو القرنين dhū al-qarnayn) literally meaning "He of the Two Horns" is a figure mentioned in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture The reason being is Dhul-Qarnayn is described in the Holy Quran as a monotheist believer who worshipped Allah (God). This, it is claimed, removes Alexander as a candidate for Dhul-Qarnayn as Alexander was a polytheist. Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic ذو القرنين dhū al-qarnayn) literally meaning "He of the Two Horns" is a figure mentioned in the Qur'an, the sacred scripture Yet contemporaneous Persian nobles would have practiced Zurvanism, thus disqualifying them on the same basis. Zurvanism is a now-extinct branch of Zoroastrianism that had the divinity Zurvan as its First
In the Shahnameh
The Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, one of the oldest books written in modern Persian, has a chapter about Alexander. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. It is a book of epic poetry written around 1000 AD, and is believed to have played an important role in the survival of the Persian language in the face of Arabic influence. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language It starts with a mythical history of Iran and then gives a story of Alexander, followed by a brief mention of the Arsacids. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The accounts after that, still in epic poetry, portray historical figures. Alexander is described as a child of a Persian king, Daraaye Darab (the last in the list of kings in the book whose names do not match historical kings), and a daughter of Philip, a Roman king. However, due to problems in the relationship between the Persian king and Philip's daughter, she is sent back to Rome. Alexander is born to her afterwards, but Philip claims him as his own son and keeps the true identity of the child secret.
Names
Alexander is also known in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work Arda Wiraz Nāmag as "Alexander the accursed",[30][31] in the Persian language Guzastag,[32] due to his conquest of the Persian Empire and the destruction of its capital Persepolis. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Book of Arda Viraf is a Zoroastrian religious text that describes the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian (the 'Viraf' of the story through the next world The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial He is also known as Eskandar-e Maqduni[33] (Alexander of Macedonia") in Persian, al-Iskandar al-Makduni al-Yunani[34] ("Alexander the Macedonian, of Greece") in Arabic, אלכסנדר מוקדון, Alexander Mokdon in Hebrew, and Tre-Qarnayia in Aramaic (the two-horned one, apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god Ammon), الاسكندر الاكبر, al-Iskandar al-Akbar ("Alexander the Great") in Arabic, سکندر اعظم, Sikandar-e-azam in Urdu and Skandar in Pashto. "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Aramaic is a Semitic language with Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as Sikandar, his name in Urdu and Hindi, is also a term used as a synonym for "expert" or "extremely skilled". Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is
In ancient and modern culture
Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander. Main towns founded by Alexander Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander the Great. [35] Diodorus Siculus credits Alexander with planning cities on a grid plan. The grid plan or gridiron plan is a type of City plan in which Streets run at right angles to each other forming a grid. [36]
Alexander has figured in works of both "high" and popular culture from his own era to the modern day.
Notes
- ^ Alexander. Online Etymology Dictionary. The Online Etymology Dictionary is a Dictionary that describes the origins of English language words Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ a b Alexander's death riddle is 'solved'. BBC (1998-06-11). Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ The birth of Alexander. Livius. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ Pomeroy, S. ; Burstein, S. ; Dolan, W. ; Roberts, J. (1998). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509742-4.
- ^ Hammond, N. G. L. (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History. Oxford University Press, 12–13. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
- ^ a b Alexander the Great and West Nile Virus Encephalitis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ Plutarch 1919, §2. 1
- ^ Plutarch 1919, §2. 2–3
- ^ Plutarch. Phocion, 17.
- ^ Worthington 2003, p. 162
- ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome — 12, pp. 155–165.
- ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus: Life of Alexander the Great. University of Chicago. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Majumdar, R. C. (1971). Ancient India, 99.
- ^ Mukerjee, R. K. . History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion, p. 46.
- ^ Hanson, Victor (2002). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, p. 86.
- ^ Plutarch, Plutarch, Alexander (English).: Alexander (ed. Bernadotte Perrin). Tufts University. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ [Plutarch, Alexanderhttp://www. perseus. tufts. edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999. 01. 0243;query=chapter%3D%2363;layout=; Plutarch, Plutarch, Alexander (English). : Alexander (ed. Bernadotte Perrin)]. Tufts University. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ ALEXANDER IS WOUNDED. Main Lesson. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ Tripathi, Rama Shankar. History of Ancient India.
- ^ Aelian, Varia Historia; 12. 7
- ^ "At the same time he [Craterus] had received written instructions which the king had given him for execution; nevertheless, after the death of Alexander, it seemed best to the successors not to carry out these plans. " Diodorus XVIII,4
- ^ Plutarch, Alexander, 21
- ^ Plutarc's Moralia II "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander", 6
- ^ Source
- ^ Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. - page 312 by Bhanwarlal Nathuram Luniya — India Civilization To 1200–1978 -
- ^ The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage — page 237 by James Bissett Pratt - 1996,ISBN 8120611969
- ^ Top Ten- Lives of the Greatest Monarchs of History — page 17 by Mohsin Ashraf ,2007,ISBN 1430329394
- ^ Frank L. Holt, Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions, University of California Press.
- ^ Salima Ikram. Nile Currents
- ^ Alexander The Great: Man And God by Ian Worthington [1]
- ^ Religious persecution under Alexander the Great Livius.org
- ^ Alexander the Great by Nigel Cawthorne [2]
- ^ Top Ten- Lives of the Greatest Monarchs of History by Mohsin Ashraf [3]
- ^ Alexander Historiatus a Supplement by D. J. A. Ross[4]
- ^ Alexander the Great: his towns
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historia, vol. 8
References
- Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, English translation by Aubrey de Sélincourt (1971, first published 1958) Penguin Classics published by the Penguin Group, London ISBN 0-14-044253-7. For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca Aubrey de Sélincourt (7 June 1894 – December 1962 was an English writer Classical scholar and translator Design Penguin Books have paid particular attention to the design of its books since recruiting German typographer Jan Tschichold
- Green, Peter. Alexander of Macedon: 356–323 B. Peter Green (born 1924 is a British Classical scholar noted for his Alexander to Actium, a general account of the Hellenistic Age C. A Historical Biography. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 0-520-07166-2.
- Lane Fox, Robin, Alexander the Great, London (Allen Lane) 1973, ISBN 0-86007-707-1. Robin Lane Fox (born 1946 is an English Historian, currently a Fellow of New College Oxford and University of Oxford Reader in Ancient History
- Lane Fox, Robin, The Search for Alexander, Little Brown & Co. Boston, 1st edition (October 1980). ISBN 0-316-29108-0.
- Plutarch (1919), Life of Alexander, <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html>.
- Renault, Mary. Mary Renault (pronounced Ren-olt ( 4 September 1905 – 13 December 1983) born Mary Challans, was an English Writer The Nature of Alexander, 1st American edition (November 12, 1979), Pantheon Books ISBN 0-394-73825-X. Pantheon Books is an American imprint with Editorial independence that is part of the Knopf Publishing Group which was acquired by Random House
- Wilcken, Ulrich, Alexander the Great, W. W. Norton & Company; Reissue edition (March 1997). ISBN 0-393-00381-7.
- Worthington, Ian (2003-02-01), Alexander the Great, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-29187-9. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
Further reading
- Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, edited by A. B. Bosworth, E. J. Baynham. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2002 (Paperback, ISBN 0-19-925275-0).
- Baynham, Elizabeth. Alexander the Great: The Unique History of Quintus Curtius. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10858-1); 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-03081-7).
- Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great by Joseph Roisman (editor). Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003.
- Cartledge, Paul. Paul Cartledge is a Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University, and a fellow of Clare College. Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past. Woodstock, NY; New York: The Overlook Press, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-565-2); London: PanMacmillan, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4050-3292-8); New York: Vintage, 2005 (paperback, ISBN 1-4000-7919-5).
- Dahmen, Karsten. The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. Oxford: Routledge, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-39451-1; paperback, ISBN 0-415-39452-X).
- De Santis, Marc G. “At The Crossroads of Conquest. ” Military Heritage, December 2001. Military Heritage is a glossy bi-monthly Military History Magazine published by Sovereign Media Volume 3, No. 3: 46–55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings).
- Fuller, J.F. C; A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto; New York: Da Capo Press, Inc. Major-General John Frederick Charles Fuller, CB, CBE, DSO, commonly J , 1987 and 1988. ISBN 0-306-80304-6
- Gergel, Tania Editor Alexander the Great (2004) published by the Penguin Group, London ISBN 0-14-200140-6 Brief collection of ancient accounts translated into English
- Larsen, Jakob A. Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. O. "Alexander at the Oracle of Ammon", Classical Philology, Vol. 27, No. 1. (Jan. , 1932), pp. 70–75.
- Lonsdale, David. Alexander the Great, Killer of Men: History's Greatest Conqueror and the Macedonian Way of War, New York, Carroll & Graf, 2004, ISBN 0786714298
- Pearson, Lionel Ignacius Cusack. The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great. Chicago Ridge, IL: Ares Publishers, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-89005-590-4).
- Thomas, Carol G. Alexander the Great in his World (Blackwell Ancient Lives). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0631232451; paperback, ISBN 063123246X).
Non-Greek/Latin perspectives
- A. Shapur Shahbazi, "Iranians and Alexander", American Journal of Ancient History n. s. 2 (2003), 5–38: the Persian side of the story.
- R. J. van der Spek, "Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian scholarship" in: Achaemenid History 13 (2003), 289–346: an overview of several Babylonian sources
- Two chapters of Jona Lendering's Dutch book Alexander de Grote, which uses the cuneiform sources, are available in translation. Jona Lendering (born October 29 1964 Beneden-Leeuwen) is a Dutch Historian and the author of books on antiquity, Dutch history In this chapter, he argues that at Gaugamela, Alexander attacked a Persian army that was looking for an excuse to run away; and in this chapter, he offers a Babylonian perspective on Alexander's final days.
External links
Primary Sources
- Plutarch, Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great (English)
- Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus (English)
- Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources from Livius. org
- Wiki Classical Dictionary, extant sources and fragmentary and lost sources
Bibliography
- PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great by Waldemar Heckel
Projects
- Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web
- Alexander III the Great, entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
- Alexander the Great on the Web, a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites
- Alexander the Great Coins, a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image
- Alexander Tells History from his perspective; broken down into 33 segments, covering his childhood, education, upbringing, influences, strategy, leadership, friendship as well as the numerous clashes he had against Darius of the Persian Empire.
- Alexander The Great in the French museum Le Louvre
- Alexander, The Great Mystery by T. Peter Limber in "Saudi Aramco Magazine"
- Trace Alexander's conquests on an animated map
- Alexander the Great Alexander the Great forum, articles, and referenced information.
- Alexander the Great of Macedon, a project by John J. Popovic
- Alexander in the Punjab. A Photo Essay, photos of all sites Alexander visited
|
Alexander the Great
Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC |
||
| Preceded by Philip II |
King of Macedon 336–323 BC |
Succeeded by Philip III & Alexander IV |
| Preceded by Darius III |
Great King (Shah) of Persia 330–323 BC |
|
| Pharaoh of Egypt 332–323 BC |
||
| Preceded by New Title |
King of Asia 331–323 BC |
|
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Alexander the Great |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Alexander III, Μέγας Aλέξανδρος (Greek) |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Greek military commander |
| DATE OF BIRTH | July 20, 356 BC |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Pella, Macedon |
| DATE OF DEATH | June 10, 323 BC |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Babylon |
The Argead dynasty ( Ancient Greek:, the Argeads) was the ancient Greek ruling house of Macedon from about 700 Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Macedon (also known as Macedonia) was an ancient Kingdom centered around the present-day region of Macedonia in northern Greece, and Philip III Arrhidaeus ( Greek:; ca 359 BC &ndash December 25, 317 BC king of Macedon from June 10 323 BC until his death was a son of King Philip Alexander IV Aegus (in Greek, Ἀλέξανδρος Aἰγός &mdash 323&ndash309 BC was the son of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon Darius III ( Artashata) (c 380&ndash330 BC Persian داریوش Dāriūš dɔːriˈuːʃ was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of The following is a comprehensive list of kings of Persia, which includes all of the empires ruling over geographical Iran This article contains a list of the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, from the Early Dynastic Period before 3000 BC through to the end of the Ptolemaic King of Asia was the title that Alexander the Great took after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Pella (Πέλλα was the Capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq
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