Alexander Parvus (Russian: Александр Парвус) (September 8 [O.S. August 27] 1867 in Berezin, Russian Empire (now in Belarus)– December 12, 1924 in Berlin) was a Russian revolutionary (Menshevik) and a German Social Democrat, as well as a German intelligence agent - two partly contradictory and partly complementary roles in the circumstances of the time. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Events 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. 1264 - The Statute of Kalisz Old Style (or OS) and New Style (or NS) are used in English language historical studies either to indicate that the start of the Julian year Year 1867 ( MDCCCLXVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Berazino (Беразіно́ or Berezino (Березино́ also known as Biarezan (Бярэзань is a town on the River Berezina in the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir [1] [2]
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Early life
Parvus was born Israel Lazarevich Gelfand (Russian: Израиль Лазаревич Гельфанд; his last name in English is sometimes rendered Gelfant, Helfant or Helphand, in Belarus shtetl Berezino), the son of Jewish parents. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east A shtetl (שטעטל diminutive form of Yiddish shtot שטאָט "town" pronounced very similarly to the South German diminutive "Städtle" "little Berazino (Беразіно́ or Berezino (Березино́ also known as Biarezan (Бярэзань is a town on the River Berezina in the PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ He was raised in Odessa (today's Ukraine), where he began associating with the Jewish revolutionary (The Bund) circles. ODESSA which stands for the German phrase O rganisation d er e hemaligen SS - A ngehörigen which in turn translates Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. [3]
Revolutionary
At age nineteen he left for Zürich, where he continued his studies, becoming a doctor of philosophy in 1891. Zürich (, Zürich German: Züri, Zurich, Zurigo; in English generally Zurich) is the largest city in Switzerland and capital of the By this time he openly became a Marxist. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. He moved to Germany, joined the Social Democratic Party and befriended German revolutionary Rosa Luxemburg. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist In 1900, he met Vladimir Lenin for the first time, in Munich, each admiring the other's theoretical works. Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Parvus encouraged Lenin to begin publishing his revolutionary paper Iskra. Iskra (Russian Искра means Spark, was a political Newspaper of Russian Socialist emigrants established as the official [4]
Parvus' attempts to become a German citizen proved fruitless. He once commented in a letter to his German friend Wilhelm Liebknecht that "I am seeking a government where one can inexpensively acquire a fatherland. Wilhelm Liebknecht ( March 29, 1826 &ndash August 7, 1900) was a German Social democrat, one of the founders of the " Consequently for many years he attempted to immigrate to the United States. His socialist revolutionary compatriots were already busy establishing a network of mostly Jewish revolutionaries in the United States, including Leon Trotsky who briefly moved to New York City. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij
However, German counter-intelligence had penetrated part of the socialist revolutionary network and upon reading his writing in the socialist press during the Russo-Japanese War, found Parvus had predicted that Russia would lose the war, resulting in unrest and revolution. The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September When this proved to be the case, Parvus' prestige among his socialist and other German comrades increased. Thus, German intelligence soon estimated he would be useful in efforts against the Russian Empire.
During this time he developed the concept of using a foreign war to provoke an internal revolt within a country. It was at this time that Parvus revived, from Marx, the concept-strategy of "permanent revolution" (See the linked Wikipedia article). This article is about the theory See Permanent Revolution (group for the group of the same name and Permanent Revolution (album for the Catch 22 He communicated this philosophy to Trotsky who then further expanded and developed it. Through Trotsky, the method was eventually adopted by Lenin and the Bolsheviks in Lenin's April Theses in 1917. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The April Theses ( Russian: ru апрельские тезисы transliteration:) were a series of directives by Bolshevik leader Vladimir [4]
Russian Revolution of 1905
In 1905, Parvus arrived in St. Petersburg with false Austro-Hungarian papers. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River In December, Parvus authored a provocative article on behalf of the St. Petersburg Soviet, The Financial Manifesto, which described the Russian economy as being on the verge of collapse. St Petersburg Soviet of Worker's Delegates was a Workers' council, or soviet in St In turn the article was dispatched to other communist agents in the more mainline newspapers who published it as well. In combination with this propaganda, Parvus coordinated an agitation of locals to feign a run on the banks. As the news of the article and the subsequent "rush" was spread, the consequent hysteria managed to upset the economy and enrage prime minister Sergei Witte, but did not cause a financial collapse. Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte (Сергей Юльевич Витте Sergey Yul'evich Vitte) ( 29 June, 1849 - 13 March, 1915) also
In ties with this provocation and Parvus' involvement in the organization of anti-government actions during the 1905 revolution, Parvus (together with other revolutionaries such as Leon Trotsky) was arrested by the Russian police. See also Russian Revolution (1917 The 1905 Russian Revolution also known as the Failed Russian Revolution of 1905 was an empire-wide struggle of Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij While in prison he became close with other revolutionaries, and was visited by Rosa Luxemburg. Sentenced to three years exile in Siberia, Parvus escaped and ran to Germany. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving There he published a book about his experiences called In the Russian Bastile during the Revolution.
The Maxim Gorky affair
While in Germany, Parvus struck a deal with Russian author Maxim Gorky to produce his play The Lower Depths. Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov ( In Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в ( &ndash June 18, 1936) better known as Maxim Gorky (Максим The Lower Depths (На дне is perhaps Maxim Gorky 's best-known play According to the agreement, the majority of the play's proceeds were to go to the Russian Social Democratic Party (and approximately 25% to Gorky himself). The Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP ( Росси́йская Социа́л-Демократи́ческая Рабо́чая Parvus' failure to pay (despite the fact that the play had over 500 showings) caused him to be accused of stealing 130,000 German gold marks. The Goldmark (officially just Mark) is the name used for the currency of the German Empire from 1873 to 1914 Gorky threatened to sue, but Rosa Luxemburg convinced Gorky to keep the quarrel inside the party's own court. Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist Eventually, Parvus paid back Gorky, but his reputation in party circles was scathed.
Istanbul period
Soon afterwards Parvus moved to Istanbul in Turkey, where he lived for five years. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish [5] There he set up an arms trading company which profited handsomely during the Balkan War. The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League ( Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece He became the financial and political advisor of the Young Turks. The Young Turks ( Turkish: Jön Türkler (plural from French: Jeunes Turcs) were a coalition of various groups favoring reforming the His firm dealt with the deliveries of foodstuffs for the Turkish army and he was business partner of Krupp concern and Vickers Limited of famous arms dealer Basil Zaharov. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of Please refer to the overview article Vickers for other companies known by this name Vickers Limited was a famous British engineering conglomerate that Sir Basil Zaharoff KBE aka Basileios Zacharias ( October 6 1849, Muğla, Ottoman Empire – November 27 [6] Arms dealings with Vickers Limited at war time gave basis to the theory that Alexander Parvus was also a British intelligence asset. Please refer to the overview article Vickers for other companies known by this name Vickers Limited was a famous British engineering conglomerate that In intelligence, assets are persons within organizations or countries that are being spied upon who provide information for an outside spy
Russian Revolution
While in Turkey, Parvus became close with German ambassador Baron Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim who was known to be partial to establishing revolutionary fifth columns among the allies. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Baron Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim (1859-1915 - German diplomat Consequently, Parvus offered his plan via Baron von Wangenheim to the German General Staff: the paralyzing of Russia via general strike, financed by the German government[7] (which, at the time, was at war with Russia and its allies). The German General Staff ( Großer Generalstab literally Great General Staff) was an institution whose rise and development gave the German military a decided Von Wagenheim sent Parvus to Berlin where the latter arrived on the 6th of March, 1915 and presented a 20 page plan titled A preparation of massive political strikes in Russia to the German government. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Events 1079 - Omar Khayyám completes the Iranian calendar. 1454 - Thirteen Years' War: Delegates of Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year [8]
Parvus' detailed plan recommended the division of Russia by sponsoring the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, encouraging ethnic separatists in various Russian regions, and supporting various writers whose criticism of Tsarism continued during wartime. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party, or RSDLP ( Росси́йская Социа́л-Демократи́ческая Рабо́чая The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Basing himself on his 1905 experiences, Parvus theorised that the division of Russia and its loss in the First World War was the best way to bring about a socialist revolution. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Kaiser Wilheim's secret intelligence services now saw their earlier manipulation and cultivation of Parvus had paid off and advised the government to review Parvus' plan. German authorities now saw that Tsar Nicholas II was firm in his commitment to the allies and had refused to sign a separate peace treaty with Germany, instead moving out the slogan "War to its victorious end!". Parvus' new German case officer was given 2 million marks to start Parvus' plan. The Goldmark (officially just Mark) is the name used for the currency of the German Empire from 1873 to 1914 [9]
Copenhagen operation
Parvus placed his bets on Lenin, as the latter was not only a radical but willing to accept the sponsorship of the Tsar's wartime enemy, Germany. The two met first in Berne and agreed to collaborate. The city of Berne or Bern (, Berne, Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the Bundesstadt ( Federal Parvus assiduously cultivated Lenin, however Lenin kept him at arms length to disguise Parvus' new role as a German agent. German intelligence set up Parvus' financial network via offshore operations in Copenhagen, setting up relays for German money to get to Russia via fake financial transactions between front organizations. Copenhagen (ˌkəʊpənˈheɪgən ˌkəʊpənˈhɑːgən ˈkəʊpənˌheɪgən ˈkəʊpənˌhɑːgən kʰøb̥ənˈhɑʊ̯ˀn kʰøb̥m̩ˈhɑʊ̯ˀn is the capital and largest city A front organization is any entity set up by and controlled by another organization such as intelligence agencies, Organized crime groups banned organizations religious
It is still debated to the present day whether the money with which this financial network operated was actually of German origin. The evidence published by Kerensky's Government in preparation for a trial scheduled for October (November) 1917 was recently reexamined and found to be either inconclusive or outright forgery[10]. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served (See also Sisson Documents)
The most notorious was the Institute for the Study of the Social Consequences of War which Parvus set up in Denmark. The Sisson Documents are alleged Forged Russian documents obtained 1918 by Edgar Sisson, the Petrograd representative of the U The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Initially he had intended for Nikolai Bukharin to lead the operation, but under the pressure of Lenin who mistrusted Bukharin as a probable government agent (Trotsky's nickname for Nikolai Bukharin was "Nick Blabbermouth"), instead instituted Lenin's confidants Yakov Ganetsky and Karl Radek. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik Yakov Stanislavovich Ganetsky (also spelled Hanecki also known as Jakub Fürstenberg (Fuerstenberg (Яков (Якуб Станиславович Ганецкий (Фюстенберг Karl Berngardovich Radek ( October 31, 1885 - May 19, 1939) was a socialist active in the Polish and German The activities of agent couriers were organized by Moisei Uritsky, later the head of Soviet Petrograd's Cheka. Moisei Solomonovich Uritsky (Моисей Соломонович Урицкий 1873&ndash August 30 1918) was a Bolshevik Revolutionary leader The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security
However, setbacks occurred, as Ganetsky's suspicious arms smuggling activities drew unwanted attention from British SIS who now traced Ganetsky to Parvus and hence to Baron von Wangenheim. The Secret Intelligence Service ( SIS) colloquially known as MI6 is the United Kingdom 's external Intelligence agency. Baron Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim (1859-1915 - German diplomat The Baron had long been under surveillance for his support of the Young Turks' revolutionary actions against the British. The Young Turks ( Turkish: Jön Türkler (plural from French: Jeunes Turcs) were a coalition of various groups favoring reforming the As a result Ganetsky was forced out of Denmark, while attempts were made by the British and Russians to stamp out the Bolshevik's financial network in Turkey. Additionally, as Lenin became more and more aware of Parvus' relations with German intelligence their relations became increasingly strained. Losing the confidence and/or control of his agents, Parvus began looking for other avenues of operation.
Parvus' reputation with the German ministry of foreign affairs came into question when in the winter of 1916 a Parvus planned financial catastrophe in St. Petersburg (akin to Parvus' provocation against the Russian banks in 1905) failed to produce a massive uprising. As a result, financing for Parvus' operations were frozen. Parvus went for support to the German Navy, briefly working as their advisor. The Kaiserliche Marine or Imperial Navy was the German Navy created by the formation of the German Empire. He managed to help prevent Russian naval admiral Kolchak from taking on his offensive against the Turko-German Fleet in the Bosphorus and Dardanelles by planning the sabotage of a major Russian warship. Kolchak is a surname and may refer to Aleksandr Kolchak, Russian naval commander Carl Kolchak fictional reporter in television series The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the See also [[Hellespont]] The Dardanelles ( Turkish: Çanakkale Boğazı Greek: Δαρδανέλλια Dardanellia) formerly This success gave him more credibility, once again, in the eyes of the Germans.
When the February Revolution occurred in Russia, the Russian provisional government continued to commit to the allies and refused to sign a separate peace with Germany. The February Revolution (Февральская революция in 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Russian Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd in 1917 after the February Revolution and the Abdication The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. This caused the German ministry to turn to Parvus again and continue its financing of Lenin and the Bolsheviks through him.
In March 1917, in a plan strategized together with Parvus, German intelligence sent Vladimir Lenin and a group of 30 of his revolutionary associates from Switzerland through Germany in a train car under supervision of Swiss socialist Fritz Platten. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Fritz Platten ( 8 July 1883 – 22 April 1942) was a Swiss Communist. [11]
Spartacist uprising
As the depth of Parvus' arrangements with the Germans became known this also ruined relations with the rest of the revolutionary network including Rosa Luxemburg and other German socialists who were engaging in the subversion of Germany. Despite evidence showing the Parvus had never betrayed German socialists to the authorities, his credibility among the revolutionary elite went sour.
As his political activity waned, the war ground to a halt, and he refused to help the new German authorities smash Rosa Luxemburg's Red Revolution, he retreated to a German island near Berlin. The Spartacist uprising, also known as the January uprising, was a General strike (and the armed battles accompanying it in Germany from January 5 Despite his failure to help the new Weimar Republic regime he was well provided for living in an appointed 32-room mansion in Berlin's Swan Isle. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 A mansion is a large dwelling House. The word itself derives (through Old French) from the Latin word mansus (the perfect passive participle The Pfaueninsel ("Peacock Island" is an island situated in the Havel river near the Berlin Wannsee. He later published his memoirs from this residence.
Legacy
Parvus died in Germany, in December 1924. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. His body was cremated and interred in a Berlin cemetery. After his death Konrad Haenisch wrote in his memoir "This man possessed the ablest brains of the Second International"[12]
The party's gold
Igor Bunich in his The Party's gold (Zoloto partii)[13] suggests that Parvus was tightly connected to the grand theft of the monstrous communist funds deposited in Swiss banks. Konrad Haenisch ( 13 March, 1876 - 28 April, 1925) was a German Social Democratic Party politician and part of "the The Second International (1889-1916 was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889. Igor Bunich is a Russian historian known for offering a number of revisionist interpretations of Russian history These funds were later identified by Nazi Germans who forced the Swiss to freeze and/or hand over the funds. British and American intelligence also managed to lay hands on part of the funds. The accounts were later mixed up in the Holocaust account fund scandal in Switzerland. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as
Controversy
During his lifetime Alexander Parvus' reputation among his revolutionary peers suffered as a result of the Maxim Gorky affair and the fact that he was in effect a German government agent. At the same time both his business skills and revolutionary ideas were appreciated and relied upon by Russian and German revolutionaries and Ottoman's Young Turks. After the October Revolution in Russia for obvious political reasons his role was denied and he himself vilified. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution This continued during Stalin's era and sometimes had anti-semitic overtones to it. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party In Germany however he was considered favorably. [7] His name is often used in modern political debates in Russia[6]
References
- ^ "Alexander Israel Helphand". Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ (German)Heresch, Elisabeth Geheimakte Parvus. Die gekaufte Revolution. Langen/Müller. 2000 ISBN 3-7844-2753-7
- ^ (German)Scharlau, Winfried and Zeman, Zbynek A. Freibeuter der Revolution. Parvus-Helphand. Eine politische Biographie (Gebundene Ausgabe) Cologne 1964 ASIN B0000BN7WQ (The most important biography of the German-Russian-Turkish Social Democrat and Revolutionary Parvus) See also English edition Zbynek Zeman, W. The Amazon Standard Identification Number ( ASIN) is a unique identification number assigned by Amazon B. Scharlau Merchant of Revolution: Alexander Helphand, 1867-1924 Oxford University Press 318 pages 1965 ISBN 0192111620 ISBN 978-0192111623
- ^ a b (Russian) Александр Парвус (Израиль Гельфанд). (the best Russian language reference). ХРОНОС. Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ Karaömerlioglu, Asim (November 2004). "Helphand-Parvus and his impact on Turkish intellectual life".. Vol. 40, No. 6, pages 145-165. Middle Eastern Studies. Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ a b (Russian) Галковский, Дмитрий (June 22, 2005). Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Березовский – между Азефом и Парвусом (Berezovsky - between Azef and Parvus). Деловая газета «Взгляд». Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ a b Schurer, Heinz (October 1959). "Alexander Helphand-Parvus–Russian Revolutionary and German Patriot".. Vol. 18, No. 4, pages 313-331. Russian Review. The Russian Review is a major independent Peer-reviewed multi-disciplinary academic journal devoted to the history literature culture fine arts cinema society and politics Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ (Russian) Парвус, Александр (February 1915). Подготовка массовой политической забастовки в России (A preparation of massive political strikes in Russia). ХРОНОС. Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
- ^ Ludendorff, Eric. My War Memories, 1914-1918 ISBN 1-84574-303-2
- ^ Semion Lyandres The Bolsheviks' "German Gold" Revisited: An Inquiry into the 1917 Accusations
- ^ (German)Pößneck, Ehrenfried Lenin als Kontrahent von Parvus im Jahr 1917. Schkeuditz : GNN-Verlag, 1997. ISBN 3-932725-05-0
- ^ (German)Haenisch, Konrad Parvus : ein Blatt der Erinnerung. Konrad Haenisch ( 13 March, 1876 - 28 April, 1925) was a German Social Democratic Party politician and part of "the Berlin Verl. für Sozialwissenschaft, 1925
- ^ (Russian) Бунич, Игорь (January-March 1992). Золото партии (free full text). Санкт-Петербург. Retrieved on 2006-12-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila
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