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Albrecht Dürer

Self-Portrait (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on board, Alte Pinakothek, Munich
Birth name Albrecht Dürer
Born May 21, 1471(1471-05-21)
Nuremberg, Germany
Died April 6, 1528 (aged 56)
Nuremberg, Germany
Nationality German
Field Printmaking, Painting, Engraving
Works Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513)

Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) Melencolia I (1514) Dürer's Rhinoceros

Albrecht Dürer (pronounced [ˈalbʀɛçt ˈdyʀɐ]) (May 21, 1471 – April 6, 1528)[1] was a German painter, printmaker and theorist from Nuremberg, Germany. The Alte Pinakothek (Old Pinakothek is an Art museum situated in the Kunstareal in Munich, Germany. Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Printmaking is the Process of making artworks by Printing, normally on Paper. Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it St Jerome in His Study (German Der heilige Hieronymus im Gehäus) is an Engraving of 1514 by the German artist Albrecht Dürer Melencolia I, sometimes known as Melancholia I (using the modern spelling is an Engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrecht Dürer's Rhinoceros is the name commonly given to a Woodcut created by German painter and Printmaker Albrecht Dürer in Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Printmaking is the Process of making artworks by Printing, normally on Paper. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. His still-famous engravings include Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. St Jerome in His Study (German Der heilige Hieronymus im Gehäus) is an Engraving of 1514 by the German artist Albrecht Dürer Melencolia I, sometimes known as Melancholia I (using the modern spelling is an Engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrecht His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium. Watercolor ( US) or Watercolour ( UK) (and "aquarelle" in French is a Painting method For the art of designing external spaces see Landscape architecture. For the origins of the technique and non-artistic use see Woodblock printing; for the related technique invented in the 18th century see Wood engraving Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th Humanistic studies were late in finding entrance into Germany. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in Northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatise which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived While there is significant variation in anatomical proportions between people there are many references to body proportions that are intended to be canonical either in

His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since.


Contents

Early life (1471 - 1490)

The earliest painted Self-Portrait (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum Louvre, Paris
The earliest painted Self-Portrait (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum Louvre, Paris
Dürer's own woodcut of his coat of arms
Dürer's own woodcut of his coat of arms

Dürer was born on May 21, 1471, third child and second son of his parents, who had between fourteen and eighteen children. Vellum (from the Old French Vélin for "calfskin" is mammal skin prepared for writing or printing on single pages scrolls codices or books The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city A coat of arms or armorial bearings (often just arms for short in European tradition is a design belonging to a particular person (or group of people Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. His father was a successful goldsmith, originally named Ajtósi, who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Ajtós, near Gyula in Hungary. A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. Gyula (Julau Giula Ðula is a town in Békés county in south-eastern Hungary. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The German name "Dürer" is derived from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi". Initially, it was "Thürer," meaning doormaker, which is "ajtós" in Hungarian (from "ajtó", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. A coat of arms or armorial bearings (often just arms for short in European tradition is a design belonging to a particular person (or group of people Albrecht Dürer the Elder married Barbara Holper, from a prosperous Nuremberg family, in 1467.

Dürer's godfather was Anton Koberger, who left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. Anton Koberger (c 1440/1445 &ndash 3 October 1513) was the German Goldsmith, printer and publisher who printed and published the Nuremberg A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. He quickly became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing-presses and having many offices in Germany and abroad. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image His most famous publication was the Nuremberg Chronicle, published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. The Nuremberg Chronicle, written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt is one of the best documented early printed books It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. For the origins of the technique and non-artistic use see Woodblock printing; for the related technique invented in the 18th century see Wood engraving Michael Wolgemut (formerly spelt Wohlgemuth) (1434 &ndash 1519 German painter and Printmaker, was born and died in Nuremberg Dürer may well have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut. [2]

It is fortunate Dürer left autobiographical writings and that he became very famous by his mid-twenties. Because of this, his life is well documented from a number of sources. After a few years of school, Dürer started to learn the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. A goldsmith is a Metalworker who specializes in working with Gold and other Precious metals usually in modern times to make Jewelry. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he started as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486. Michael Wolgemut (formerly spelt Wohlgemuth) (1434 &ndash 1519 German painter and Printmaker, was born and died in Nuremberg A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) “when I was a child”, as his later inscription says. Drawing is a Visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium Silverpoint is a traditional drawing technique first used by Medieval scribes on manuscripts The Albertina is a Museum in the Innere Stadt (First District of Vienna, Austria. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was a prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the [2]

Wanderjahre and marriage (1490-4)

After completing his term of apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking Wanderjahre — in effect gap years — in which the apprentice learned skills from artists in other areas; Dürer was to spend about four years away. A gap year (also known as "year out" "year off" "deferred year" "bridging year" " Overseas experience " "time off" He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, a leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. Martin Schongauer (c 1448 &ndash February 2, 1491) was a German Engraver and painter. Colmar (Colmar kɔlmaʁ Alsatian: Colmer pronounced; Colmar between 1871-1918 and 1940-1945 also Kolmar) is a town and commune It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. In 1493 Dürer went to Strassbourg, where he would have experienced the scultpure of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Nikolaus Gerhaert also known as Nikolaus Gerhaert von Leyden (c Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancé in Nuremberg. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France [2]

In early 1492 Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg. "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. Here he produced a woodcut of St Jerome as a frontispiece for Nicholaus Kessler's 'Epistolare beati Hieronymi'. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος Panofsky argues that this print combined the 'Ulmian style' of Koberger's 'Lives of the Saints' (1488) and that of Wolgemut's workshop. Ulm (ˈʊlm is a City in the German Bundesland of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the River Danube. [3] Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on July 7, 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey († 1539) following an arrangement made during his absence. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage. It is probable that Dürer's engraved copies after Mantegna were made at this time, before his trip to Italy. Andrea Mantegna (c 1431 &ndash September 13, 1506) was an Italian Renaissance artist a student of Roman Archeology, and son in law of

First journey to Italy (1494-5)

Young Hare, 1502, Watercolour and bodycolour (Albertina).
Young Hare, 1502, Watercolour and bodycolour (Albertina). The Albertina is a Museum in the Innere Stadt (First District of Vienna, Austria.

Within three months Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Watercolor ( US) or Watercolour ( UK) (and "aquarelle" in French is a Painting method Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis. These are the first pure landscape studies known in Western art. [2]

In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the [4] Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Martin Schongauer and the Housebook Master. Drypoint is a Printmaking technique of the intaglio family in which an image is incised into a plate (or "matrix" with a hard-pointed "needle" For the origins of the technique and non-artistic use see Woodblock printing; for the related technique invented in the 18th century see Wood engraving Martin Schongauer (c 1448 &ndash February 2, 1491) was a German Engraver and painter. Master of the Housebook and Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet are two names used for an Engraver and painter working in South Germany in [4] He also would have had access to some Italian works in Germany, but the two visits he made to Italy had an enormous influence on him. He wrote that Giovanni Bellini was the oldest and still the best of the artists in Venice. Giovanni Bellini (c 1430 – 1516 was an Italian Renaissance painter probably the best known of the Bellini family of Venetian painters His drawings and engravings show the influence of others, notably Antonio Pollaiuolo with his interest in the proportions of the body, Mantegna, Lorenzo di Credi and others. Antonio del Pollaiolo ( January 17, 1429 /1433 &ndash February 4, 1498) also known as Antonio di Jacopo Pollaiuolo or Antonio Lorenzo di Credi (c 1459 &ndash January 12, 1537) was an Italian painter and sculptor. Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Mantua (Màntova in the local dialect of Lombard language Mantua is a city in Lombardy, Italy and capital of the province of the

The evidence for this trip is not conclusive and although the theory is supported by Erwin Panofsky (Albrecht Dürer, 1943) and others, the visit has been disputed by other scholars, including Katherine Crawford Luber (Albrecht Dürer and the Venetian Renaissance, 2005).

Return to Nuremberg (1495 - 1505)

Melencolia I, 1514, Albrecht Dürer engraving
Melencolia I, 1514, Albrecht Dürer engraving

On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Melencolia I, sometimes known as Melancholia I (using the modern spelling is an Engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrecht Over the next five years his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Dürer lost both of his parents during the next decade: his father died in 1502 and his mother died in 1513. [5] His best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as The Mens' Bath-house (ca. For the origins of the technique and non-artistic use see Woodblock printing; for the related technique invented in the 18th century see Wood engraving 1496). These were larger than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.

It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been left for a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block.

His famous series of sixteen great designs for the Apocalypse[6] are dated 1498. He made the first seven scenes of the Great Passion in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. The Holy Family consists of the Child Jesus, the Virgin Mary and St Around 1503–1505 he produced the first seventeen of a set illustrating the Life of the Virgin, which he did not finish for some years. The Life of the Virgin, showing narrative scenes from the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus is a common subject for pictorial cycles in Christian art often complementing or Neither these, nor the Great Passion, were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers. [2]

Lamentation for Christ, oil, 1500-3
Lamentation for Christ, oil, 1500-3

During the same period Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. Burin from the French burin meaning "cold Chisel " has two specialised meanings for types of tools in English one meaning a Steel Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. The first few were relatively unambitious, but by 1496 he was able to produce the masterpiece, the Prodigal Son, which Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. Giorgio Vasari ( 30 July 1511 – 27 June 1574) was an Italian painter and Architect, who is today famous He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace (ca. 1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and beautiful animals. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Images of the Madonna and Madonna and Child are one of the central Icons of Christianity, representing the Madonna or Mary mother of Jesus Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years. [2]

The Praying Hands
The Praying Hands

The Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him. Jacopo de' Barbari, sometimes known or referred to as de'Barbari de Barberi de Barbari Barbaro Barberino Barbarigo or Barberigo (c Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration While there is significant variation in anatomical proportions between people there are many references to body proportions that are intended to be canonical either in He was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of Adam and Eve (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces. Adam (אָדָם ʼĀḏām, "dust man mankind" آدم; Ge'ez: አዳ and Eve (חַוָּה Ḥawwā, "living Burin from the French burin meaning "cold Chisel " has two specialised meanings for types of tools in English one meaning a Steel [2] This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name. At this time Dürer also made an engraving of Philosophia as mother of the liberal arts for the humanist Conrad Celtis. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. Conrad Celtes (aka Conrad Celtis, Konrad Celtis; February 1, 1459 – February 4, 1508) was a German

Dürer made large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the Praying Hands (1508 Albertina, Vienna), a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. The Albertina is a Museum in the Innere Stadt (First District of Vienna, Austria. He also continued to make images in watercolour and bodycolour (usually combined), including a number of exquisite still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his "Hare" (1502, Albertina, Vienna). Watercolor ( US) or Watercolour ( UK) (and "aquarelle" in French is a Painting method Gouache, Pronounced "Gouash" (from the Italian guazzo, "water paint splash" or bodycolor (the term preferred by art historians Hares and jackrabbits are Leporids belonging to the Genus Lepus. The Albertina is a Museum in the Innere Stadt (First District of Vienna, Austria.

Second journey to Italy (1505-07)

In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. Tempera (also known as egg tempera) is a type of artist's Paint and associated art techniques that were known from the classical world where it appears Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the Adoration of the Magi. An altarpiece is a picture or Relief representing a religious subject and suspended in a frame behind the Altar of a church The Adoration of the Magi is the name traditionally given to the Christian subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507. [1] By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. San Bartolomeo ( Saint Bartholomew) is one of many churches in Venice, Italy. This was the altar-piece known as the Adoration of the Virgin or the Feast of Rose Garlands. It includes portraits of members of Venice's German community, but shows a strong Italian influence. It was subsequently acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague. Rudolf II ( July 18, 1552, Vienna, Austria - January 20, 1612, Prague, Bohemia, now part of Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch, Christ disputing with the Doctors (supposedly produced in a mere five days), and a number of smaller works.

Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507 - 1520)

This detail from Salvatore Mundi, an unfinished oil painting on wood, reveals Dürer's highly detailed preparatory drawing. See full painting
This detail from Salvatore Mundi, an unfinished oil painting on wood, reveals Dürer's highly detailed preparatory drawing. See full painting

Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer was back in Nuremberg by mid-1507, and he remained in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and—mainly through Lorenzo di Credi—Leonardo. Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Giovanni Bellini (c 1430 – 1516 was an Italian Renaissance painter probably the best known of the Bellini family of Venetian painters Lorenzo di Credi (c 1459 &ndash January 12, 1537) was an Italian painter and sculptor.

Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick the Wise), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). This article is about the saint For schools by the same name see St Frederick III Elector of Saxony ( 17 January 1463 &ndash 5 May 1525) also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of clair-obsur effect [7], creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Chiaroscuro ( Italian for light-dark) is a term in Art for a contrast between light and dark

Other works from this period include the thirty-seven woodcut subjects of the Little Passion, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Indeed, complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. However, in 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: The Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513, probably based on Erasmus's treatise 'Enichiridion militis Christiani'), St. Jerome in his Study, and the much-debated Melencolia I (both 1514). Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it St Jerome in His Study (German Der heilige Hieronymus im Gehäus) is an Engraving of 1514 by the German artist Albrecht Dürer Melencolia I, sometimes known as Melancholia I (using the modern spelling is an Engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrecht

Dürer's Rhinoceros, woodcut, 1515.
Dürer's Rhinoceros, woodcut, 1515. Dürer's Rhinoceros is the name commonly given to a Woodcut created by German painter and Printmaker Albrecht Dürer in For the origins of the technique and non-artistic use see Woodblock printing; for the related technique invented in the 18th century see Wood engraving

In 1515, he created his woodcut of the Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. Dürer's Rhinoceros is the name commonly given to a Woodcut created by German painter and Printmaker Albrecht Dürer in Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Despite being relatively inaccurate (the animal belonged to a now-extinct Indian species), the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century. [2] In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. Tempera (also known as egg tempera) is a type of artist's Paint and associated art techniques that were known from the classical world where it appears Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum.

Patronage of Maximilian I

In 1512 Dürer became patronised by Maximilian I. His commissions included The Triumphal Arch, a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica. The Triumphal Arch (also known as the Arch of Maximilian I, in German: Ehrenpforte Maximilians I Horapollo (from Horus Apollo, Ὡραπόλλων is supposed author of a treatise on Egyptian hieroglyphs, extant in a Greek translation The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the archtectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. Johannes Stabius ( Johann Stab) (1450 &ndash 1522 was an Austrian Cartographer of Vienna who developed The Arch was followed by the Triumphal Procession, the program of which was worked out in 1512 by Marx Treitz-Saurwein and includes woodcuts by Albrecht Altdorfer and Hans Springinklee, as well as Dürer. Albrecht Altdorfer (c 1480 near Regensburg &ndash 12 February 1538 in Regensburg) was a German painter, Printmaker Hans Springinklee (c1490/c1495 &ndash c1540 was a German artist from Nuremberg, best known for his Woodcuts He was a Pupil of

Dürer worked in pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed Prayer-Book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter Hans Baldung known as Hans Baldung Grien/Grün (c 1480 - 1545 Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.

Journey to the Netherlands (1520-1521)

St. Christopher, engraving, 1521, by Albrecht Dürer
St. Christopher, engraving, 1521, by Albrecht Dürer

Following Maximilian's death, Dürer fell into a crisis, aware that the era of his patron had come to an end, but also affected by the writings of Martin Luther. Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey. He sought to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French, Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well-received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the Silverpoint is a traditional drawing technique first used by Medieval scribes on manuscripts In addition to going to the coronation, he made excursions to Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired van Eyck's altarpiece) and Zeeland. Stefan Lochner ( Meersburg, 1400 &ndash Cologne, 1452 was a German late Gothic painter Nijmegen (ˈnɛɪmeɣən) (obsolete spellings Nijmwegen Nymegen Nieumeghen &mdash Nimwegen in local dialect and in German, Nimègue in French ' s-Hertogenbosch ( (literally "The Duke's Forest" colloquially known as Den Bosch ( — translated in French as Bois-le-Duc, in German Bruges (Brugge is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium. Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all The Madonna of Bruges is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo, of Mary with the infant Jesus. Ghent (ˈɡɛnt Gent ʝɛnt in Dutch, Gand in French, and formerly Gaunt in English) is a City and a Jan van Eyck or Johannes de Eyck (jɑn vɑn ɛik (before c 1395 &ndash before July 9, 1441) was an Early Netherlandish painter active Zeeland ( also called Zealand in English and Zeelandic, is a province of the Netherlands.

Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. An old master print is a work of art produced by a Printing process within the Western tradition (European or New World Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented. [8] While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Conrad Meit, Bernard van Orley, Jean Prevost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir & Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys. Bernard van Orley (Brussels between 1487 and 1491 &ndash Brussels 6 January 1541) also called Barend van Orley, Bernaert van Orley or Barend van Jean Prévost ( June 13, 1901 &ndash August 1, 1944) was a French Writer and Resistance fighter Lucas Horenbout, often called Hornebolte in England ( Ghent c Joachim Patinir, also called de Patinier and de Patiner (c 1480 &ndash October 5, 1524) was a Flemish Northern Renaissance Tommaso di Andrea Vincidor ( Bologna, 1493 &ndash Breda, 1536 was an Italian Renaissance painter and architect who trained with Raphael and For his grandson the Elizabethan painter see Quentin Metsys the Younger Quentin Matsys, his first name also recorded as [9]

At the request of Christian II of Denmark Dürer went to Brussels to make the King's portrait. Christian II (1 July 1481 &ndash 25 January 1559 was a Danish monarch and King of Denmark, Norway (1513 &ndash 1523 and Sweden (1520 &ndash 1521 Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is There he saw "the things which have been sent to the king from the golden land" — the Aztec treasure that Hernán Cortés had sent home to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V following the fall of Mexico. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Dürer wrote that this treasure "was much more beautiful to me than miracles. These things are so precious that they have been valued at 100,000 florins". [2] Dürer also appears to have been collecting for his own cabinet of curiosities, and he sent back to Nuremberg various animal horns, a piece of coral, some large fish fins, and a wooden weapon from the East Indies. For the 2002 novel by Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child see The Cabinet of Curiosities For the 2008 Jane's Addiction box set see A Cabinet of Curiosities Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago

Having secured his pension, Dürer finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness—perhaps malaria[10] —which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including [2]

Final years in Nuremberg (1521-28)

Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of Albrecht Dürer
Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of Albrecht Dürer

On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a Crucifixion scene and a Sacra Conversazione, though neither was completed. Crucifixion (from Latin crucifixio, noun of process crucifixio, from perfect passive participle crucifixus, fixed to a cross from In art the sacra conversazione refers to a depiction of The Madonna with infant Jesus amidst the Saints The form developed during the Italian Renaissance [11] This may have been in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived While there is significant variation in anatomical proportions between people there are many references to body proportions that are intended to be canonical either in Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for

However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter in front and St. Paul with St. Mark in the background. Saint John the Apostle ( Greek Ιωάννης, see Names of John) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and "Saint Mark" redirects here For other uses see Saint Mark (disambiguation. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return. [12] An inscription relates the figures to the four humours. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers [13]

As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; the humanist scholar Willibald Pirckheimer; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German; June 28, 1490 &ndash September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of Frederick III Elector of Saxony ( 17 January 1463 &ndash 5 May 1525) also known as Frederick the Wise, was Elector Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal Willibald Pirckheimer ( December 5, 1470, Eichstätt, Bavaria - December 22, 1530) was a German Renaissance Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile, perhaps reflecting a more mathematical approach. Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern (German; June 28, 1490 &ndash September 24, 1545) was Elector and Archbishop of

Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images. "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Willibald Pirckheimer ( December 5, 1470, Eichstätt, Bavaria - December 22, 1530) was a German Renaissance He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. "The Four Books on Measurement" were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German,[2] as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. "The Four Books on Human Proportion" were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528 at the age of fifty-six. [1]

Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins—a considerable sum. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1537, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark. [2] It is now a museum.

Dürer and the Reformation

Although Dürer was a Roman Catholic, it is clear from his writings that he was highly sympathetic to Martin Luther. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties. " In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524 Dürer wrote "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics. Nicholas Kratzer (1487? &ndash 1550 was a German mathematician astronomer and Horologist. " Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory. . . but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse. " Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's 'Babylonian Captivity' in 1520. Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein von Karlstadt (1486 &ndash December 24 1541) better known as Andreas Karlstadt or Andreas Carlstadt, was a Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian [14] In spite of all these reasons to believe Dürer was sympathetic to Lutheranism, at least in its early manifestations, he never in any way abandoned the Catholic Church.

Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. For example, his engraving of The Last Supper of 1523 has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focussing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism,[15] although this interpretation has been questioned. In the Christian Gospels the Last Supper (also called the Lord's Supper or Mystical Supper) was the last meal Jesus shared with his Evangelicalism is a theological movement tradition and system of beliefs most closely associated with Protestant Christianity, which identifies with the Gospel This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those See " Utraquist school " for a kind of Bilingual schools Utraquism (from the Latin sub utraque specie, meaning [16] The delaying of the engraving of St Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of Saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion. Saint Philip was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Later Christian traditions describe Philip as the apostle who proselytized in Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments [17]

Legacy and influence

The Cannon, Dürer's largest etching, 1518
The Cannon, Dürer's largest etching, 1518

Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominately in private collections located in only a few cities. Printmaking is the Process of making artworks by Printing, normally on Paper. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, who entered into collaborations with printmakers to distribute their work beyond their local region. Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (c 1485 &ndash August 27 1576 better known as Titian, was the leading painter of the 16th-century Venetian Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola ( 11 January 1503 - 24 August 1540) also known as Francesco Mazzola or more commonly as Printmaking is the Process of making artworks by Printing, normally on Paper.

His work in engraving seems to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors, the Little Masters, who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in tiny, rather cramped compositions. Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it The early Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the century. Lucas van Leyden ( Leiden, 1494 &ndash August 8 1533 in Leiden also named either Lucas Hugensz or Lucas Jacobsz, was a Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola and Christofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). Giulio Campagnola (c 1482 – c 1515 was an Italian Engraver and painter, whose few rare prints translated the rich Venetian Renaissance Marcantonio Raimondi, also simply Marcantonio, (c 1480 &ndash c Agostino Veneziano, ("Venetian Agostino" whose real name was Agostino de' Musi, ( Venice ca However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn traveled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also.

In painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, and have been blamed for some of the wilder excesses of artists' self-portraiture, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been revivals of interest in his works Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German Nationalism from 1870 to 1945. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation [2] He is commemorated on the calendar of the Lutheran Church with other artists on April 6. The Lutheran Calendar of Saints is a listing which details the primary annual festivals and events that are celebrated liturgically by the Lutheran Church Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther The crater Dürer on Mercury was named in his honor.

Dürer's theoretical works

In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language, rather than Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language, e. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Vernacular refers to the Native language of a country or a locality g. 'snail-line' ('Schneckenlinie') for a spiral, thus contributing to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534 [12]

The Four Books on Measurement

Dürer's work on geometry is called the 'Four Books on Measurement' ('Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt'). Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. A helix (pl helixes or helices) from the Greek word έλιξ, is a special kind of Space curve, i A conchoid is a Curve derived from a fixed point O, another curve and a length d. In Geometry, an epicycloid is a plane Curve produced by tracing the path of a chosen point of a Circle &mdash called epicycle &mdash which rolls without He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. Johann(es Werner ( 14 February 1468 in Nuremberg, Germany &ndash May 1522 (also Ioannis Verneri The second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i. e. the construction of regular polygons. In Geometry a polygon (ˈpɒlɨɡɒn ˈpɒliɡɒn is traditionally a plane figure that is bounded by a closed path or circuit Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Typography is the art and techniques of arranging type, Type design, and modifying type Glyphs Type glyphs are created and modified using a variety In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum A classical order is one of the ancient styles of building design in the classical tradition, distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic profiles and details In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. Typography is the art and techniques of arranging type, Type design, and modifying type Glyphs Type glyphs are created and modified using a variety Contemporary typographers view typography as craft with a very long History tracing its origins back to the first punches and dies used to make seals and Currency However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. This article is about the 4th century alphabet of the Gothic bible The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedrons. What is a polyhedron? We can at least say that a polyhedron is built up from different kinds of element or entity each associated with a different number of dimensions Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention. In Geometry, a Platonic solid is a convex Regular polyhedron. In all these, Dürer shows the objects in net. In Geometry the net of a Polyhedron is an arrangement of edge-joined Polygons in the plane which can be folded (along edges to become the faces of the polyhedron Finally, Dürer discusses the Delian Problem and moves on to the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through linear perspective. Doubling the cube (also known as The Delian Problem) is one of the three most famous geometric problems unsolvable by Compass and straightedge construction Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero della Francesca. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (sometimes Paciolo) (1446/7&ndash1517 was an Italian Mathematician and Franciscan friar collaborator with Donato Bramante (1444 – March 11, 1514) was an Italian Architect, who introduced the Early Renaissance style to Milan and the High Renaissance Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived Piero della Francesca (c 1412 &ndash October 12, 1492) was an Italian artist of the Early Renaissance. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Although Dürer made no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book of Underweysung der Messung an assortment of mechanisms for drawing in perspective from models, and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that have become standard to presentations of perspective.

The Four Books on Human Proportion

Dürer's work on human proportions is called the 'Four Books on Human Proportion' ('Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. While there is significant variation in anatomical proportions between people there are many references to body proportions that are intended to be canonical either in The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of, "two to three hundred living persons,"[12] in his own words. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learnt from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. Leon Battista Alberti ( February 14, 1404 &ndash April 25, 1472) was an Italian author artist Architect, Poet Francesco di Giorgio Martini (baptised September 23, 1439 – 1502 was an Italian painter of the Sienese School, a sculptor an architect In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging A curved mirror is a Mirror with a curved reflective surface which may be either convex (bulging outward or concave (bulging inward Physiognomy ( Gk physis, nature and gnomon, judge interpreter is the assessment of a person's character or personality from their outer appearance especially The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.

Appended to the third book, however, is a self contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'. Inspiration in artistic composition refers to an irrational and unconscious burst of Creativity. [12] In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year. "[18]

See also

Category:Dürer paintings and prints

References

  1. ^ a b c Mueller, Peter O. (1993) Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Durers, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012815-2.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Giulia Bartrum, "Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy", British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN 0714126330
  3. ^ Panofsky:21
  4. ^ a b Lee, Raymond L. & Alistair B. Fraser. (2001) The Rainbow Bridge, Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01977-8.
  5. ^ Allen, L. Jessie. (1903) Albrecht Dürer, Methuen & co.
  6. ^ Johannesapokalypse in klassischen Comics
  7. ^ Panofsky:135
  8. ^ Landau & Parshall:350-54 and passim
  9. ^ Panofsky:209
  10. ^ Panofsky:
  11. ^ Panofsky:223
  12. ^ a b c d Erwin Panofsky, "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, 1945, ISBN 0691003033
  13. ^ Panofsky:235
  14. ^ Price:225-248
  15. ^ Strauss, 1981
  16. ^ Price:254
  17. ^ Harbison
  18. ^ Panofsky:283

Books/sources

External links


Persondata
NAME Dürer, Albrecht
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION German artist and mathematician
DATE OF BIRTH 21 May 1471
PLACE OF BIRTH Nuremberg, Germany
DATE OF DEATH 6 April 1528
PLACE OF DEATH Nuremberg, Germany

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