Persian scholar Medieval era (Islamic golden age)
Name	Ghazali (Algazel)
Birth	1058 AD (450 AH)
Death	1111 AD (505 AH)
School/tradition	Sufism, Sunnite (Shafi'ite), Asharite
Main interests	Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Early Islamic philosophy, Islamic psychology, Logic in Islamic philosophy, Islamic jurisprudence
Influenced	Nicholas of Autrecourt, Thomas Aquinas, Abdul-Qader Bedil, René Descartes, Maimonides,[1] Raymund Martin, Fakhruddin Razi, Shah Waliullah[2]

Abu Hāmed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzālī (1058-1111) (Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی), known as Algazel to the western medieval world, was born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia (modern day Iran). For the area code see Area code 450. Events By Place Eastern Roman Empire August 25 — Marcian is proclaimed The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ This article is about the year 505 For other uses of the phrase '505' see 505 (disambiguation. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Nicholas or Nicolaus of Autrecourt (in French Nicholas d'Autrécourt; in Latin Nicolaus de Autricuria or Nicolaus de Ultricuria) (ca Abul Ma'āni Mirzā Abdul-Qāder Bedil or Mawlānā Abul Ma'āni Abdul Qader Bedil also Bidel Dehlavi (1642&ndash1720 (مولانا ابوالمعانی عبدالقادر Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Ramón Martí was a Thirteenth century Catalan Dominican monk and theologian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Taymi al-Bakri al-Tabaristani Fakhr al-Din al-Razi ( Arabic / Shah Waliullah Muhaddith Dehlavi ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: شاہ ولی الله دهلوی) also known as Shah Waliullah of Delhi Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. He was a Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, psychologist and mystic of Persian origin^{[3] [4]}, and remains one of the most celebrated scholars in the history of Sufi Islamic thought. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف He is considered a pioneer of the methods of doubt and skepticism,^[5] and in one of his major works, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he changed the course of early Islamic philosophy, shifting it away from the influence of ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, and towards cause-and-effect that were determined by God or intermediate angels. Doubt, a status between Belief and disbelief, involves Uncertainty or Distrust or lack of sureness of an alleged Fact, an action In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition

Biography

Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of Sufism and its integration and acceptance in mainstream Islam. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف He was a scholar of orthodox Islam, belonging to the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence and to the Asharite school of theology. The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Ghazali received many titles such as Sharaful A'emma (Arabic: شرف الائمه), Zainuddin (Arabic: زين الدين), Hujjatul Islam, meaning "Proof of Islam" (Arabic: حجة الاسلام). Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language He is viewed as the key member of the influential Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy and the most important refuter of Mutazilites. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. However, he chose a slightly different position in comparison with the Asharites; his beliefs and thoughts differ, in some aspects, from the orthodox Asharite school. ^[6]

Life

Haruniyah structure in Tus, Iran, named after Harun al-Rashid, the mausoleum of Ghazali is expected to be situated on the entrance of this monument

Ghazali was born in 1058 in Tus, a city in Khorasan province of Persia. Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia His father, a traditional sufi, died when he and his younger brother, Ahmad Ghazali, were still young. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف One of their father's friends took care of them for the next few years. In 1070, Ghazali and his brother went to Gurgan to enroll in a madrassah. Gorgan ( Persian: گرگان Caspian: Vergen is the capital of the Golestan Province, Iran. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. There, he studied fiqh (islamic jurisprudence) next to Ahmad ibn Muhammad Rādkānī and Abu'l Qāsim Jurjānī. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature After approximately 7 years studying, he returned to Tus.

His first important trip to Nishapur occurred around 1080 when he was almost 23 years old. Nishapur, or Neyshābūr ( is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot He became the student of the famous muslim scholar Abu'l Ma'ālī Juwaynī, known as Imam al-Haramayn. Al-Juwayni was a Sunni Shafi'i Hadith and Kalam Scholar. Name Imam al-Haramayn Dhia' ul-Din Abd al-Malik ibn After the death of Al-Juwayni in 1085, Ghazālī was invited to go to the court of Nizamul Mulk Tusi, the powerful vizier of the Seljuq sultans. For info about rulers of Hyderabad state, see the page Nizam state of Hyderabad. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled The vizier was so impressed by Ghazali's scholarship that in 1091 he appointed him as chief professor in the Nizamiyya of Baghdad. A nizamiyya ( النظامیة, Persian: نظامیه is one of the medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous He used to lecture to more than 300 students, and his participation in Islamic debates and discussions made him popular in all over the Islamic territories.

He passed through a spiritual crisis in 1095, abandoned his career, and left Baghdad on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Making arrangements for his family, he disposed of his wealth and adopted the life of a poor Sufi. After some time in Damascus and Jerusalem, with a visit to Medina and Mecca in 1096, he settled in Tus to spend the next several years in seclusion. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as He ended his seclusion for a short lecturing period at the Nizamiyyah of Nishapur in 1106. A nizamiyya ( النظامیة, Persian: نظامیه is one of the medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the Nishapur, or Neyshābūr ( is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot Later he returned to Tus where he remained until his death in December, 1111. Toos (توس or طوس in Persian) also known as Tous or Tus, is an ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan He had one son named Abdu'l Rahman Allam.

Works

1308 Persian Edition of the Alchemy of Happiness.

Ghazali wrote more than 70 books on Islamic sciences, early Islamic philosophy, Islamic psychology, Kalam and Sufism. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف His 11th century book titled The Incoherence of the Philosophers marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology, as Ghazali effectively discovered philosophical skepticism that would not be commonly seen in the West until René Descartes, George Berkeley and David Hume. The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy The encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God. Occasionalism is a philosophical theory about causation which says that created substances cannot be Efficient causes of events

The Incoherence of the Philosophers

Main article: The Incoherence of the Philosophers

The The Incoherence of the Philosophers marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The book took aim at the falasifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and Al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labeled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education.

Last page of Al-Ghazali's autobiography in MS Istanbul, Shehid Ali Pasha 1712, dated A.H. 509 = 1115-1116. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎

In the next century, Averroes drafted a lengthy rebuttal of Ghazali's Incoherence entitled The Incoherence of the Incoherence; however, the epistemological course of Islamic thought had already been set. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Andalusian Arab, Polymath and philosopher Averroes ( Ibn Rushd) (1126 - 1198 is an

The Deliverance From Error

The autobiography Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, The Deliverance From Error (Al-munqidh min al-ḍalāl; several English translations^[7]) is considered a work of major importance. An autobiography, from the Greek αὐτός autos "self" βίος bios "life" and γράφειν graphein "to write" ^[8] In it, Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast. For a general discussion of skepticism see Skepticism. Philosophical skepticism (from Greek σκέψις - skepsis meaning . . the key to most knowledge,"^[9] he studied and mastered the arguments of kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and insight (the state of prophecy or nubuwwa) he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian" because of the scarcity of recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature from this period outside the Christian tradition. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering The Varieties of Religious Experience A Study in Human Nature is a book by the Harvard psychologist and philosopher William James that comprises his edited ^[10]

The Revival of Religious Sciences

Another of Ghazali's major works is Ihya al-Ulum al-Din or Ihya'ul Ulumuddin (The Revival of Religious Sciences). It covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences: fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), kalam (theology) and sufism. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف It contains four major sections: Acts of worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life (Rub' al-'adatat), The ways to Perdition (Rub' al-'muhlikat) and The ways to Salavation (Rub' al-'munjiyat). Many admirable comments were made regarding his this book: "If all Islamic sciences were disappeared, they could be taken back from Ihya'ul Ulumuddin. " He then wrote a brief version of this book in Persian under The Alchemy of Happiness (Kīmyāye Sa'ādat).

The Jerusalem Tract

At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam entitled The Jerusalem Tract. ^[11]

Atomism

Al-Ghazali was responsible for formulating the Ash'ari school of atomism. In Natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small indestructible building blocks - Atoms Or stated in He argued that atoms are the only perpetual, material things in existence, and all else in the world is “accidental” meaning something that lasts for only an instant. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny Nothing accidental can be the cause of anything else, except perception, as it exists for a moment. Contingent events are not subject to natural physical causes, but are the direct result of God’s constant intervention, without which nothing could happen. Thus nature is completely dependent on God, which is consistent with other Ash'ari Islamic ideas on causation, or the lack thereof. Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence ^[12]

In atomic theory, al-Ghazali alluded to the possibility of dividing an atom. This article focuses on the historical models of the atom For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules see History of the molecule. In reference to the wide divisions among Muslims, he wrote: "Muslims are so good at dividing that they can divide the atom. If you see two Muslims, probably they belong to 3 parties. "^[13]

In the fourteenth century, Nicholas of Autrecourt considered that matter, space, and time were all made up of indivisible atoms, points, and instants and that all generation and corruption took place by the rearrangement of material atoms. Nicholas or Nicolaus of Autrecourt (in French Nicholas d'Autrécourt; in Latin Nicolaus de Autricuria or Nicolaus de Ultricuria) (ca The similarities of his ideas with those of al-Ghazali suggest that Nicholas was familiar with the work of al-Ghazali, who was known as "Algazel" in Europe, either directly or indirectly through Averroes. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European ^[14]

Psychology

In Islamic psychology, al-Ghazali discussed the concept of the self and the causes of its misery and happiness. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. He described the self using four terms: Qalb (heart), Ruh (spirit), Nafs (soul) and 'Aql (intellect). قلب is an Arabic word meaning " Heart " It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy Ruh is an Arabic word meaning soul It is the third among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta Thirteen stages of taming ruh To attend Tajalliy-e-Ruh the Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. ‘Aql (عقل literally "something tied to an animal's feet to restrain it" (see ‘agal عقل "id He stated that "the self has an inherent yearning for an ideal, which it strives to realize and it is endowed with qualities to help realize it. An ideal is a Principle or value that one actively pursues as a goal. " He further stated that the self has motor and sensory motives for fulfilling its bodily needs. Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics A human need can be defined either psychologically or objectively He wrote that the motor motives comprise of propensities and impulses, and further divided the propensities into two types: appetite and anger. The propensity theory of probability is one interpretation of the concept of Probability. An impulse is a wish or urge particularly a sudden one It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of Human Thought processes but also one that can become Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage He wrote that appetite urges hunger, thirst, and sexual craving, while anger takes the form of rage, indignation and revenge. Hunger is a feeling experienced usually followed by a desire to Eat. Thirst is the craving for liquids resulting in the basic Instinct of humans or animals to Drink. Sexual addiction is a controversial term to describe sexual behaviour that is characterized at least by two key features recurrent failure to control the behavior and continuation of the Rage, in Psychiatry, is a mental state that is one extreme of the intensity spectrum of Anger. Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Revenge (also vengeance, retribution, or vendetta amongst others consists primarily of retaliation against a person or group in response He further wrote that impulse resides in the muscles, nerves, and tissues, and moves the organs to "fulfill the propensities. Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument "^[15]

Al-Ghazali was one of the first to divide the sensory motives (apprehension) into five external senses (the classical senses of hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch) and five internal senses: common sense (Hiss Mushtarik) which synthesizes sensuous impressions carried to the brain while giving meaning to them; imagination (Takhayyul) which enables someone to retain mental images from experience; reflection (Tafakkur) which brings together relevant thoughts and associates or dissociates them as it considers fit but has no power to create anything new which is not already present in the mind; recollection (Tadhakkur) which remembers the outer form of objects in memory and recollects the meaning; and the memory (Hafiza) where impressions received through the senses are stored. In Psychology, apprehension (Lat ad, "to" prehendere, "to seize" is a term applied to a model of Consciousness Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses Common sense (or when used attributively as an Adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical) based on a strict construction The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind A mental image is an experience that significantly resembles the experience of perceiving some object event or scene but that occurs when the relevant object event or scene is not Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or Human self-reflection is the capacity of Humans to exercise Introspection and the willingness to learn more about our fundamental nature Purpose and Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both In Psychology and Marketing, two concepts or stimuli are associated when the experience of one leads to the effects of another due to repeated pairing MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Recollection is the retrieval of Memory. It is not a passive process people employ Metacognitive strategies to make the best use of their memory and priming In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Hafith or Hafiz ( Arabic: حافظ قرآن or حافظ plural huffaz) literally meaning 'guardian' is a term used by Muslims in modern He wrote that, while the external senses occur through specific organs, the internal senses are located in different regions of the brain, and discovered that the memory is located in the hinder lobe, imagination is located in the frontal lobe, and reflection is located in the middle folds of the brain. In Anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension that can be determined without the use of a Microscope (at the Gross anatomy level The frontal lobe is an area in the Brain of Mammals It is located at the front of each Cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of the He stated that these inner senses allow people to predict future situations based on what they learn from past experiences. ^[16]

In The Revival of Religious Sciences, he writes that the five internal senses are found in both humans and animals. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus In Mizan al Amal, however, he later states that animals "do not possess a well-developed reflective power" and argues that animals mostly think in terms of "pictorial ideas in a simple way and are incapable of complex association and dissociation of abstract ideas involved in reflection. " He writes that "the self carries two additional qualities, which distinguishes man from animals enabling man to attain spiritual perfection", which are 'Aql (intellect) and Irada (will). ‘Aql (عقل literally "something tied to an animal's feet to restrain it" (see ‘agal عقل "id Will, or willpower is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different ways He argues that the intellect is "the fundamental rational faculty, which enables man to generalize and form concepts and gain knowledge. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding " He also argues that human will and animal will are both different. He writes that human will is "conditioned by the intellect" while animal will is "conditioned by anger and appetite" and that "all these powers control and regulate the body. " He further writes that the Qalb (heart) "controls and rules over them" and that it has six powers: appetite, anger, impulse, apprehension, intellect, and will. قلب is an Arabic word meaning " Heart " It is the second among the six purities or Lataif-e-sitta in Sufi philosophy Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage An impulse is a wish or urge particularly a sudden one It can be considered as a normal and fundamental part of Human Thought processes but also one that can become In Psychology, apprehension (Lat ad, "to" prehendere, "to seize" is a term applied to a model of Consciousness He states that humans have all six of these traits, while animals only have three (appetite, anger, and impulse). ^[16] This was in contrast to other ancient and medieval thinkers such as Aristotle, Avicenna, Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas who all believed that animals cannot become angry. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O ^[17]

Al-Ghazali writes that knowledge can either be innate or acquired. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent An acquired disorder is a Medical condition which develops post- Fetally in contrast with a Congenital disorder, which is present at Birth He divides acquired knowledge into phenomenal (material world) and spiritual (related to God and soul), and divides acquired knowledge into imitation, logical reasoning, contemplation and intuition. A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Imitation is an advanced Behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's In Logic, three kinds of logical reasoning can be distinguished deduction, induction and abduction. The word Contemplation comes from the Latin root templum (from Greek temnein to cut or divide and means to separate something from its environment and to enclose it in a sector Intuition is apparent ability to acquire knowledge without a clear inference or the use of reason He also argues that there are four elements in human nature: the sage (intellect and reason), the pig (lust and gluttony), the dog (anger), and the devil (brutality). Human nature is the concept that there are a set of logical characteristics including ways of thinking feeling and acting that all 'normal' human beings have in common Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously Derived from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow gluttony is the over-indulgence and Over-consumption of food drink or intoxicants The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order The Devil is the Battery is a term used by the Common law jurisdictions which involves an Injury or other Contact upon the Person of another in a manner likely He argues that the latter three elements are in conflict with the former element and that "different people have such powers in different proportions. "^[16]

Al-Ghazali divides the Nafs into three categories based on the Qur’an: Nafs Ammarah (12:53) which "exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil", Nafs Lawammah (75:2) which is "the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong", and Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27) which is "a self that reaches the ultimate peace. Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Gratification is the positive emotional response ( Happiness) to a fulfillment of desire Passion (from the Latin patior, meaning to suffer or to endure is an emotion of feeling very strongly about a person Conscience is a hypothesized Ability or faculty that distinguishes whether our actions are right or wrong Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. " As an analogy between psychology and politics, he compares the soul to that of a king running a kingdom, arguing that the bodily organs are like the artisans and workers, intellect is like a wise vizier, desire is like a wicked servant, and anger is like the police force. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living A king is a male Monarch, or a Head of state, who may or may not depending on the style of government of a nation exercise monarchal powers over a territory usually In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing A Vizier ( - wazīr) (sometimes also spelled Vazir Vizir Vasir Wazir Vesir, or Vezir - grammatical vowel changes are common in many western Asian In philosophy desire has been identified as a philosophical problem since Antiquity Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force He argues that a king can correctly run the state of affairs by turning to the wise vizier, turns away from the wicked servant, and regulating the workers and the police; and that in the same way, the soul is balanced if it "keeps anger under control and makes the intellect dominate desire. The state of affairs is that combination of circumstances applying within a society or group at a particular time " He argues that for a soul to reach perfection, it needs to evolve through several stages: sensuous (like a moth which has no memory), imaginative (lower animal), instinctive (higher animal), rational ("transcends animal stage and apprehends objects beyond the scope of his senses") and divine ("apprehends reality of spiritual things"). eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields A moth is an Insect closely related to the Butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind Instinct is the inherent disposition of a living Organism toward a particular Behavior. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Divinity and divine (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine' are broadly applied but loosely defined terms used variously within different faiths and belief systems — Spiritual intelligence is a term used to discern a suite or set of propensities comprising Perceptions Intuitions Cognitions etc ^[18]

He stated that there are two types of diseases: physical and spiritual. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as He considered the latter to be more dangerous, resulting from "ignorance and deviation from God", and listed the spiritual diseases as: self-centeredness; addiction to wealth, fame and social status; and ignorance, cowardice, cruelty, lust, waswas (doubt), malevolence, calumny, envy, deception, and greed. In Psychology, egocentrism is defined as a the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world including other people and b the tendency to perceive understand and interpret The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being A celebrity is a widely-recognized or famous person who commands a high degree of public and media attention In Sociology or Anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in Society (one's Social position) Coward redirects here For other meanings including as a surname see Coward (disambiguation. Cruelty can be described as indifference to Suffering, and even positive Pleasure in inflicting it Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously Malice is a Legal term referring to a party's Intention to do Injury to another party Envy (also called invidiousness) may be defined as an Emotion that "occurs when a person lacks another’s superior quality achievement or possession and Deception (also called beguilement or subterfuge) is the act of convincing another to believe Information that is not true or not the whole truth as in Greed is the Selfish desire for or pursuit of Money, Wealth, power, Food, or other Possessions, especially when this denies To overcome these spiritual weaknesses, al-Ghazali suggested the therapy of opposites ("use of imagination in pursuing the opposite"), such as ignorance & learning, or hate & love. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis He described the personality as an "integration of spiritual and bodily forces" and believed that "closeness to God is equivalent to normality whereas distance from God leads to abnormality. Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences In Behavior, normal refers to a lack of significant deviation from the average Abnormality is a subjectively defined characteristic assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions "^[19]

Al-Ghazali argued that human beings occupy a position "midway between animals and angels and his distinguishing quality is knowledge. An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition " He argues that a human can either rise to "the level of the angels with the help of knowledge" or fall to "the levels of animals by letting his anger and lust dominate him. " He also argued that Ilm al-Batin (esotericism) is fard (incumbent) and advised Tazkiya Nafs (self-purification). The Batiniyya (or Batini') was an Esoteric Ismaili sect of Shi'i Islam. Fard (الفرض also farida (الفريضة is an Islamic term which denotes a religious duty Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Ritual purification is a feature of many Religions The aim of these Rituals is to remove specifically defined uncleanliness prior to a particular type He also noted that "good conduct can only develop from within and does not need total destruction of natural propensities. "^[19]

Ghazali's influence

The grave believed to belong to al-Ghazali

Ghazali had an important influence on both Muslim philosophers and Christian medieval philosophers along with Jewish thinkers like Maimonides. This is a subarticle to Islamic philosophy and Islamic scholars A Muslim philosopher is a person that professes Islam and engaged in the A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Medieval philosophy is the Philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as Medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and ^[20][21] Margaret Smith writes in her book Al-Ghazali: The Mystic (London 1944): "There can be no doubt that Ghazali’s works would be among the first to attract the attention of these European scholars" (page 220). Margaret Smith (born 1884 was a female scholar writing on early Christian and Muslim mysticism from an openminded Christian perspective Then she emphasizes, "The greatest of these Christian writers who was influenced by Al-Ghazali was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), who made a study of the Islamic writers and admitted his indebtedness to them. He studied at the University of Naples where the influence of Islamic literature and culture was predominant at the time. The University of Naples Federico II (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. "

Ghazali's influence has been compared to the works of St. Thomas Aquinas in Christian theology, but the two differed greatly in methods and beliefs. Whereas Ghazali rejected non-Islamic philosophers such as Aristotle and saw it fit to discard their teachings on the basis of their "unbelief," Aquinas embraced them and incorporated ancient Greek and Latin thought into his own philosophical writings.

"A careful study of Ghazali's works will indicate how penetrating and widespread his influence was on the Western medieval scholars. A case in point is the influence of Ghazali on St. Thomas Aquinas — who studied the works of Islamic philosophers, especially Ghazali's, at the University of Naples. The University of Naples Federico II (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. In addition, Aquinas' interest in Islamic studies could be attributed to the infiltration of ‘Latin Averroism’ in the 13th century, especially at [the University of] Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city "^[22]

It is also believed that René Descartes' ideas from his book called Discourse on the Method were influenced by Ghazali and very much similar to Ghazali's work. Organization How to think correctly The Method of Science Morals Maxims deduced from this Method Proof of God and the Soul Physics the heart Thus, some scholars today believe that Descartes was being dishonest by writing the "Discourse on Methods" without giving any academic reference to Ghazali's work in his book. ^[5]

Ghazali also played a very major role in integrating Sufism with Shariah. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. He combined the concepts of Sufism very well with the Shariah laws. He was also the first to present a formal description of Sufism in his works. His works also strengthened the status of Sunnite Islam against other schools. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic The Batinite (Ismailism) had emerged in Persian territories and were gaining more and more power during Ghazali's period, as Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated by the members of Ismailis. The Batiniyya (or Batini') was an Esoteric Ismaili sect of Shi'i Islam. For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia For info about rulers of Hyderabad state, see the page Nizam state of Hyderabad. Ghazali strictly refuted their ideology and wrote several books on refutation of Baatinyas which significantly weakened their status.

Ijtihad

Ijtihad is the process through which Islamic scholars can generate new rules for Muslims. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Ijtihad was one of the recognized sources of Islamic knowledge by early Islamic scholars - that is, in addition to Quran, Sunnah and Qiyas. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence,the qiyas ( Arabic قياس is the process of analogical reasoning in which the teachings of the Quran are compared While it is not widely agreed that Al-Ghazali himself intended to "shut the door of ijtihad" completely and permanently, such an interpretation of Al-Ghazali's work led the Islamic societies to be "frozen in time". Works of critics of Al-Ghazali (such as Ibn-Rushd, a rationalist), as well as the works of any ancient philosopher, were practically forbidden in these "frozen societies" through the centuries. As a result, all chances were lost to gradually revitalize religion - which may have been less painful had it been spread over a period of centuries.

Whether the actual outcome of "freezing Islamic thinking in time" was the goal of Al-Ghazali is highly debatable. While he himself was a critic of the philosophers, Al-Ghazili was a master in the art of philosophy and had an immense education in the field. After such a long education in philosophy, as well as a long process of reflection. But only taking Al-Ghazali's final conclusions, while lacking a comparable education (and a reflection process) in the area, and as a result being unable to trace Al-Ghazali in his thought process, only exacerbates the probability of the misuse of Al-Ghazali's conclusions.

List of Works

The pen box belonging to al-Ghazali, preserved in the Cairo museum.

Ghazali had mentioned the number of his works "more than 70", in one of his letters to Sultan Sanjar in the late years of his life. Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 However, there are more than 400 books attributed to him today. Making a judgment on the number of his works and their attribution to Ghazali is a difficult step. Many western scholars such as William Montgomery Watt (The works attributed to Al-Ghazali), Maurice Bouyges (Essai de chronologie des oeuvres d'Al-Ghazali) and others prepared a list of his works along with their comments on each book. William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic

Finally, Abdel Rahman Badawi, an Egyptian scholar, prepared a comprehensive list of Ghazali's works under 457 titles:

• from 1 to 72: works definitely written by Ghazali
• from 73 to 95: works of doubtful attribution
• 96 - 127: works which are not those of Ghazali with most certainty
• 128 - 224: are the names of the Chapters or Sections of Ghazali's books that are mistakenly thought books of his
• 225 - 273: books written by other authors regarding Ghazali's works
• 274 - 389: books of other unknown scholars/writers regarding Ghazali's life and personality
• 389 - 457: the name of the manuscripts of Ghazali's works in different libraries of the world

The following is a short list of his Major works:

Theology

• al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error)
• Hujjat al-Haq (Proof of the Truth)
• al-Iqtisad fil-i`tiqad (Median in Belief)
• al-maqsad al-asna fi sharah asma' Allahu al-husna (The best means in explaining Allah's Beautiful Names)
• Jawahir al-Qur'an wa duraruh (Jewels of the Qur'an and its Pearls)
• Fayasl al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa (The Criterion of Distinction between Islam and Clandestine Unbelief)
• Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche of Lights)
• Tafsir al-yaqut al-ta'wil

Sufism

• Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action)
• Ihya' ulum al-din, "Revival of Religious Sciences", Ghazali's most important work
• Bidayat al-hidayah (Beginning of Guidance)
• Kimiya-ye sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness) [a résumé of Ihya'ul ulum, in Persian]
• Nasihat al-muluk (Counseling Kings) [in Persian]
• al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error)
• Minhaj al-'Abidin (Methodolgy for the Worshipers)

Philosophy

• Maqasid al falasifa (Aims of Philosophers) [written in the beginning of his life, in favour of philosophy and presenting the basic theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by Avicenna's works]
• Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), [in this book he refutes the Greek Philosophy aiming at Avicenna and Al-Farabi; and of which Ibn Rushd wrote his famous refutation Tahafut al-tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)]
• Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq (Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic)
• Mihak al-Nazar fi al-mantiq (Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic)
• al-Qistas al-mustaqim (The Correct Balance)

Jurisprudence

• Fatawy al-Ghazali (Verdicts of al-Ghazali)
• Al-wasit fi al-mathab (The medium [digest] in the Jurisprudential school)
• Kitab tahzib al-Isul (Prunning on Legal Theory)
• al-Mustasfa fi 'ilm al-isul (The Clarified in Legal Theory)
• Asas al-Qiyas (Foundation of Analogical reasoning)

Works in Persian

Al-Ghazali wrote most of his works in Arabic and few in Persian. Abdur Rahman Badawi ( Arabic: ar عبد الرحمن بدوى ( February 17, 1917 – July 25, 2002) was a well-known Egyptian The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language His most important Persian work is Kīmyāyé Sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness). It is Al-Ghazali's own Persian version of Ihya'ul ulumuddin (The Revival of Religious Sciences) in Arabic, but a shorter work. It is one of the outstanding works of 11th-century-Persian literature. The book was published several times in Tehran by the edition of Hussain Khadiv-jam, a renown Iranian scholar. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of It has been translated to English, Arabic, Turkish, Urdu and other languages. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised

Apart from Kimya, the most celebrated of Ghazali's works in Persian is Nasīhatul Mulūk (The Counseling Kings), written most probably for Sultan Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malekshah. Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 In the edition published by Jalāluddīn Humāyī, the book consists of two parts of which only the first can reliably be attributed to Ghazali. The language and the contents of some passages are similar to the Kimyaye Sa'adat. The second part differs considerably in content and style from the well-known writings of Ghazali. It contains the stories of pre-Islamic kings of Persia, especially those of Anoshervān. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning Nasihatul Muluk was early translated to Arabic under the title al-Tibr al-masbuk fi nasihat al-muluk (The Forged Sword in Counseling Kings).

Zād-e Ākherat (Provision for the hereafter) is an important Persian book of Ghazali but gained less scholarly attention. The greater part of it consists of the Persian translation of one of his Arabic books, Bedāyat al-Hedāya (Beginning of Guidance). It contains in addition the same contents as the Kīmyāyé Sa'ādat. The book was most probably written during the last years of his life. Its manuscripts are in Kabul (Library of the Department of Press) and in Leiden. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with "Leyden" redirects here For other uses see Leyden (disambiguation.

Pand-nāma (Book of Counsel) is another book of advice and probably attributed to Sultan Sanjar. The introduction to the book relates that Ghazali wrote the book in response to a certain king who had asked him for advice. Ay farzand (O son!) is a short book of counsel that Ghazali wrote for one of his students. The book was early translated to Arabic entitled ayyuhal walad. His another Persian work is Hamāqāti ahli ibāhat or Raddi ebāhīyya (Condemnation of antinomians) which is his fatwa in Persian illustrated with Quranic verses and Hadiths. A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic

Faza'ilul al-anam min rasa'ili hujjat al-Islam is the collection of letters in Persians that Ghazali wrote in response to the kings, ministers, jurists and some of his friends after he returned to Khorasan. The collection was gathered by one of his grandchildren after his death, under five sections/chapters. The longest letter is the response to objections raised against some of his statements in Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche of Light) and al-Munqidh min al-dalal (Rescuer from Error). The first letter is the one which Ghazali wrote to Sultan Sanjar presenting his excuse for teaching in Nizamiyya of Nishapur; followed by Ghazali's speech in the court of Sultan Sanjar. Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 A nizamiyya ( النظامیة, Persian: نظامیه is one of the medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk in the Nishapur, or Neyshābūr ( is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot Ghazali makes an impressing speech when he was taken to the king's court in Nishapur in 1106, giving very influential counsels, asking the sultan once again for excusing him from teaching in Nizamiyya and refuting the accusations made against him for disrespecting Imam Abu Hanifa in his books. Al-Imam al-A'zam ( الامام الاعظم) "The Greatest Imam" Nu’man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan ( النعمان بن ثابت‎) better known by The sultan was so impressed that ordered Ghazali to write down his speech so that it will be sent to all the ulemas of Khorasan and Iraq. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia Persian Iraq or Iraq-i Ajam ( is an obsolete term for the central region of Iran, including cities such as Isfahan, Ray, Qazvin,

Literature

• Laoust, H: La politique de Gazali, Paris 1970
• Campanini, M. : Al-Ghazzali, in S. H. Nasr and O. Leaman, History of Islamic Philosophy 1996
• Watt, W. M. : Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, Edinburgh 1963
• Zwemer, S. M. A Moslem Seeker after God, New York 1920
• Nakamura, K. Al-Ghazali, Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Notes

References

• Haque, Amber (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377

External links

• Al-Ghazali Web Site
• Full text of Incoherence of the Philosophers, from Al-Ghazali Websites
• Public Domain documentary on al-Ghazali
• Al-Ghazali entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Frank Griffel