History of al-Andalus 711 - 1492
711 - 732 Invasions
Omayyad conquest Battles : Battle of Guadalete Battle of Toulouse | Battle of Tours
756 - 1039 Omayyads of Córdoba
Caliphate of Córdoba Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
1039 - 1085 Taifas
1085-1145 Almoravids
Almoravid conquest Battle of Sagrajas
1147 - 1238 Almohads
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
1238 - 1492 Kingdom of Granada
Nasrid dynasty Battle of Granada
connected articles
Map of Al-Andalus Reconquista

Al-Andalus (Arabic: الأندلس) was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims, or Moors, at various times in the period between 711 and 1492. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants The Battle of Guadalete was fought in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king Roderic The Battle of Toulouse ( 721) was a victory of a Frankish army led by Duke Odo of Aquitaine over an Umayyad army besieging the city of The Battle of Tours (October 10 732 also called the Battle of Poitiers and in معركة بلاط الشهداء (ma‘arakat Balâṭ ash-Shuhadâ’ Battle of Court ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of This article is about the Andalusian Muslim general and statesman Al-Mansur (938 - 1002 A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i The July 16 1212 battle of Las Navas de Tolosa ( Spanish: Batalla de Las Navas de Tolosa / Arabic: معركة العقاب Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. The Nasrid dynasty or Banuu Nasri (بنو نصر was the last Arab and Muslim dynasty in Spain. The Battle of Granada was the siege of the city of Granada over a period of months leading up to its capitulation on the 2 January 1492 The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent ^[1] As a political domain or domains, it was successively a province of the Umayyad Caliphate initiated successfully by the wise Caliph Al-Walid I (711-750), the Emirate of Córdoba (c. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ( الوليد بن عبد الملك or Al-Walid I (668 - 715 was a wise and powerful Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 705 750-929), the Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031), and finally the Caliphate of Córdoba's taifa (successor) kingdoms. The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality For large parts of its history, particularly under the Caliphate of Córdoba, Andalus was a beacon of learning and the city of Córdoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centers in both the Mediterranean basin and the Islamic world. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba.

In 1236, the Reconquista (gradual Christian reconquest) under the forces of Ferdinand III of Castile progressed as far as the last remaining Islamic stronghold, Granada. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Saint Ferdinand III (July 30 or August 5 1199 &ndash May 30, 1252) was the King of Castile from 1217 and King of León from 1230 Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. Granada was reduced to a vassal state to Castile for the next 256 years, until January 2, 1492, when Boabdil surrendered complete control of Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella, Los Reyes Católicos ("The Catholic Monarchs"). A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, Events 366 - The Alamanni cross the frozen Rhine River in large numbers invading the Roman Empire. Abu 'abd-Allah Muhammad XII (أبو عبد الله محمد الثاني عشر (b Ferdinand II of Aragon the Catholic (Fernando II de Aragón y V de Castilla "el Católico" Ferran II d'Aragó "el Catòlic" Ferrando II d'Aragón The Catholic Monarchs (los Reyes Católicos is the collective title used in history for Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon The Portuguese Reconquista culminated in 1249 with the conquest of Algarve by Afonso III. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. Afonso III (ɐˈfõsu in Portuguese; rare English alternatives Alphonzo or Alphonse) or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese

Etymology of al-Andalus

The etymology of the word "al-Andalus" is disputed. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time Furthermore, the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name may have changed over centuries. As a designation for Iberia or its southern portion, the name is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government in Iberia circa 715 (the uncertainty in the year is due to the fact that the coins were bilingual in Latin and Arabic and the two inscriptions differ as to the year of minting). ^[2]

At least three specific etymologies have been proposed in Western scholarship, all presuming that the name arose after the Roman period in the Iberian Peninsula's history. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Their originators or defenders have been historians. Recently, linguistics expertise has been brought to bear on the issue. Arguments from toponymy (the study of place names), history, and language structure demonstrate the lack of substance in all preceding proposals, and presented evidence that the name predates the Roman occupation rather than postdates it. ^[3]

A major objection to all earlier proposals is that the very name Andaluz (the equivalent of Andalus in Spanish spelling) exists in several places in mountainous areas of Castile. ^[4] Furthermore, the fragment and- is common in Spanish place names, and the fragment -luz also occurs several times across Spain.

Older proposals

In Western scholarly tradition, right up to the present moment, the name has been considered by most commentators to come from "Vandal", the name of the Germanic tribe that colonized parts of Iberia from 407 to 429. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic However, on the one hand there is in fact no historical (i. e. , documentary) attestation of this, and on the other hand there are numerous toponymic, linguistic, and historical reasons why it is untenable. This proposal is sometimes associated with the 19th century historian, Dozy;^[5] but it predates him and he recognized certain of its shortcomings. Although he accepted that "al-Andalus" derived from "Vandal", he believed that geographically it referred only to the harbor from which the Vandals departed Iberia for Africa -- the location of which harbor was unknown. ^[6]

Another proposal is that "Andalus" is an Arabic language version of the name "Atlantis". Atlantis (in Greek,, "island of Atlas " is the name of a Legendary Island, first mentioned in Plato 's dialogues This idea has recently been defended by the Spanish historian, Vallvé, but purely on the grounds that it is allegedly plausible phonetically and would explain several toponymic facts -- no historical evidence offered. ^[7] In fact, phonetically this proposed etymology is poorly motivated: the Arabic language would not likely rearrange the consonant sequence of "Atlantis" to this extreme. (The English word "penalty" as a soccer term has been borrowed into modern Arabic as "bilanti". This fact and other examples of borrowing into Arabic taken together suggest that "Atlantis" would more likely become "Altantis" or "Alantis". ) The shift of the 'i' to 'u' would need to be justified too. Another fact to consider in assessing Vallvé's proposal is that in Modern Standard Arabic, the name for "Atlantis" is aţlānţis, this being the title of the entry for Atlantis in the Arabic language Wikipedia^[8]. Atlantis (in Greek,, "island of Atlas " is the name of a Legendary Island, first mentioned in Plato 's dialogues

Vallvé writes:

Arabic texts offering the first mentions of the island of al-Andalus and the sea of al-Andalus become extraordinarily clear if we substitute this expressions with "Atlántida" or "Atlantic". The same can be said with reference to Hercules and the Amazons whose island, according to Arabic commentaries of these Greek and Latin legends, was located in jauf al-Andalus—that is, to the north or interior of the Atlantic Ocean. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. The Amazons (in Greek, grc Ἀμαζόνες are a nation of all-female warriors in Classical and Greek mythology, who were possibly historical Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

The "Island of al-Andalus" is mentioned in an anonymous Arabic chronicle of the conquest of Iberia composed two to three centuries after the fact. ^[9] It is identified as the location of the landfall of the advance guard of the Moorish invasion of Iberia. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab The chronicle also says that "Island of al-Andalus" was subsequently renamed "Island of Tarifa". The preliminary invasion force of a few hundred, led by the Berber chief, Tarif abu Zura, seized the first bit of land that is encountered after crossing the Strait of Gibraltar in 710. The main invasion force led by Tariq ibn Ziyad followed them a year later. The landfall, now known in Spain as either Punta Marroquí or Punta de Tarifa, is in fact the southern tip of an islet, presently known as Isla de Tarifa or Isla de las Palomas, just offshore of the Iberian mainland. ^[10]

This testimony of the Arab chronicle, the modern name "Isla de Tarifa", and the above mentioned toponymic evidence that "Andaluz" is a name of pre-Roman origin taken together lead to the supposition that the "Island of Andalus" is the present day Isla de Tarifa, which lies just offshore from the modern day Spanish city of Tarifa. The extension of the scope of the designation "Al-Andalus" from a single islet to all of Iberia has several historical precedents. India is named after the Indus River, whose valley constitutes almost the northwest extreme of the Indian subcontinent. The name "Asia" originally denoted just parts of Anatolia. For centuries now, the Kingdom of the Netherlands has been popularly referred to by foreigners as "Holland", which is but one of the regions of the Netherlands.

In the 1980s, the historian Halm, also rejecting the "Vandal" proposal, originated an innovative alternative. ^[11] Halm took as his points of departure ancient reports that Germanic tribes in general were reported to have distributed conquered lands by having members draw lots, and that Iberia during the period of Visigothic rule was sometimes known to outsiders by a Latin name, Gothica Sors, whose meaning is 'lot Gothland'. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Halm thereupon speculated that the Visigoths themselves might have called their new lands "lot lands" and done so in their own language. However, the Gothic language version of the term Gothica Sors is not attested. Halm claimed to have been able to reconstruct it, proposing that it was *landahlauts (the asterisk is the standard symbol among linguists for a linguistic form that is merely proposed, not attested). Halm then suggested that the hypothetical Gothic language term gave rise to both the attested Latin term, Gothica Sors (by translation of the meaning), and the Arab name, Al-Andalus (by phonetic imitation). However, Halm did not offer evidence (historical or linguistic) that any of the language developments in his argument had in fact occurred.

History

Conquest and early years

Main article: Umayyad conquest of Hispania

The invaders in Iberia in 711 constituted mainly Berbers of North Africa. The Umayyad conquest of Hispania ( 711 – 718) began as an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Berbers inhabitants Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Some were Arabs. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula are commonly known as the Moors (in Spanish Moros), from an ancient Roman ethonym, Mauri. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Christians of the Iberian Peninsula began to use this term exclusively for Muslims when the Muslims lost administrative control of northern parts of Spain and Portugal. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Other words such as "Moriscos" and "Mudéjar" came into use in Spain the mid-thirteenth century. A morisco (Spanish " Moor -like" or mourisco (Portuguese was any Muslim of Spain or Portugal Mudéjar is the name given to the Moors or Muslims of Al-Andalus, who remained in Christian territory after the Reconquista but were

The Age of the Caliphs      Prophet Muhammad, 622-632      Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661      Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Under the orders of the Great Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I, Tariq ibn-Ziyad led a small force that landed at Gibraltar on April 30, 711 . Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ( الوليد بن عبد الملك or Al-Walid I (668 - 715 was a wise and powerful Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 705 Tariq Ibn Ziyad or Taric bin Zeyad (طارق بن زياد d 720 known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed was Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule After a decisive victory at the Battle of Guadalete on July 19, 711, Tariq ibn-Ziyad brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim occupation in a seven-year campaign. The Battle of Guadalete was fought in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king Roderic Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. Events By Place Europe April 30 — Ummayad troops led by Tariq ibn Ziyad land at Gibraltar, and begin They crossed the Pyrenees and occupied parts of southern France, but were eventually defeated by the Frank Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca The Battle of Tours (October 10 732 also called the Battle of Poitiers and in معركة بلاط الشهداء (ma‘arakat Balâṭ ash-Shuhadâ’ Battle of Court The Iberian peninsula, except for the Kingdom of Asturias, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire, under the name of al-Andalus. The Kingdom of Asturias was the first Christian political entity to be established in the Iberian peninsula after the collapse of the Visigothic The earliest attestation of this Arab name is a dinar coin, preserved in the Archaeological Museum in Madrid, dating from five years after the conquest (716). The Dinar is the name of the official currency in several countries Madrid (pronounced in English in Spanish and colloquially in Spain) is the Capital and largest city of Spain. The coin bears the word "al-Andalus" in Arabic script on one side and the Iberian Latin "Span" on the obverse. ^[12]

At first, al-Andalus was ruled by governors appointed by the Caliph, most ruling for periods of under three years. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah However, from 740, a series of civil wars between various Muslim groups in Iberia resulted in the breakdown of Caliphal control, with Yūsuf al-Fihri, who emerged as the main winner, effectively becoming an independent ruler. Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri was the Umayyad governor of Narbonne in Septimania and later governor of Al-Andalus from 747 to 756 ruling

The Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba

The interior of the Cathedral of Cordoba, formerly the Mosque of Cordoba, built by the Umayyads on the site of the Saint Vincent Visigothic Christian basilica and rededicated as a Christian cathedral in the 13th Century. The mosque is one of the finest examples of Arab-Islamic architecture in the Umayyad style.

In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads for control of the great Arab empire. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history But in 756, the exiled Umayyad prince Abd-ar-Rahman I (later titled Al-Dākhil) ousted Yūsuf al-Fihri to establish himself as the Emir of Córdoba. Abd ar-Rahman I Arabic (عبد الرحمن الداخل (known as the "Falcon of Andalus" or "The Falcon of the Quraish " (born 731 ruled from 756 through Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. He refused to submit to the Abbasid caliph, as Abbasid forces had killed most of his family. Over a thirty year reign, he established a tenuous rule over much of al-Andalus, overcoming partisans of both the al-Fihri family and of the Abbasid caliph.

For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes even parts of western North Africa, but with real control, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, vacillating depending on the competence of the individual emir. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Indeed, the power of emir Abdallah ibn Muhammad (circa 900) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad ( ar عبد الله بن محمد) ( January 11, 844 - October 15, 912) of the Umayyad dynasty But his grandson Abd-al-Rahman III, who succeeded him in 912, not only rapidly restored Umayyad power throughout al-Andalus but extended it into western North Africa as well. Abd-ar-Rahman III ( ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh; Arabic: عبد الرحمن الثالث January 11 889 – October In 929 he proclaimed himself Caliph, elevating the emirate to a position competing in prestige not only with the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad but also the Shi'ite caliph in Tunis — with whom he was competing for control of North Africa. The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis

The Caliphate of Cordoba c. 1000 at the apogee of Al-Mansur. This article is about the Andalusian Muslim general and statesman Al-Mansur (938 - 1002

The Caliphate broke up into many taifa states in 1031. (The northern areas shown here in white, red, yellow & dark blue were Christian)

The period of the Caliphate is seen by Muslim writers as the golden age of al-Andalus. Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided the area around Córdoba and some other Andalusī cities with an agricultural economic sector by far the most advanced in Europe. Among European cities, Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of perhaps 500,000, eventually overtook Constantinople as the largest and most prosperous city in Europe. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS ^[13] Within the Islamic world, Córdoba was one of the leading cultural centres. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists (notably Abulcasis and Averroes) had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European

Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study in the famous libraries and universities of al-Andalus after the reconquista of Toledo in 1085 . The most noted of these was Michael Scot (c. Michael Scot ( Latin: Michael Scotus) (1175 &ndash 1232? was a Medieval mathematician and Scholar. 1175 to c. 1235), who took the works of Ibn Rushd ("Averroes") and Ibn Sina ("Avicenna") to Italy. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This transmission was to have a significant impact on the formation of the European Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere

The First Taifa Period

The Córdoba Caliphate effectively collapsed during a ruinous civil war between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031. Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of mostly independent states called taifas. A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality These were generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the muslims as "the Galician nations", ^[14] and which had spread from their initial strongholds in Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, the Basque country and the Carolingian Marca Hispanica to become the Kingdoms of Navarre, León, Portugal, Castile and Aragon and the County of Barcelona. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. The Marca Hispanica (or Spanish March, also March of Barcelona) was a Buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania, created by Charlemagne Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain. The Count of Barcelona was the major ruler in Catalonia from the 9th until the 17th century Eventually raids turned into conquests, and in response the taifa kings were forced to request help from the Almoravids, Islamic rulers of the Maghreb. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Their desperate maneuver would eventually fall to their disadvantage, however, as the Moravids they had summoned from the south went on to conquer many of the taifa kingdoms as a result of the kings of "taifa" being not coherent, that was after defeating the Castilian King Alfonso VI in the battles of Zallāqah and Uclés. Alfonso VI (before June 1040 &ndash June 29 / July 1, 1109) nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of Uclés is a municipality located in the province of Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha, Spain.

Almoravids, Almohads and Marinids

In 1086 the Almoravid ruler of Morocco Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in Iberia to defend them against Alfonso VI, King of Castile and León. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during Yusuf ibn Tashfin or Tashafin (reigned c 1061 - 1106 (يوسف بن تاشفين or يوسف بن تشفين was an ethnic Berber and Al-Murabitoon ruler Alfonso VI (before June 1040 &ndash June 29 / July 1, 1109) nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin crossed the straits to Algeciras and inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the az-Zallaqah. Yusuf ibn Tashfin or Tashafin (reigned c 1061 - 1106 (يوسف بن تاشفين or يوسف بن تشفين was an ethnic Berber and Al-Murabitoon ruler Algeciras - Arabic: الجزيرة الخضراء is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest urban area on the Bay of Gibraltar By 1094, Yusuf ibn Tashfin had removed all Muslim princes in Iberia and annexed their states, except for the one at Zaragoza. Yusuf ibn Tashfin or Tashafin (reigned c 1061 - 1106 (يوسف بن تاشفين or يوسف بن تشفين was an ethnic Berber and Al-Murabitoon ruler Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community and former He regained Valencia from the Christians. Valencia ( Valencian: València, Valencia Spanish phonology --> is the capital of the Spanish autonomous

The Almoravids were succeeded in the 12th century by the Almohads, another Berber dynasty, after the victory of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur over the Castilian Alfonso VIII at the Battle of Alarcos. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur (ابو يوسف يعقوب المنصور (c Alfonso VIII ( 11 November 1155 &ndash 5 October 1214) called the Noble or Él de las Navas, was the King Battle of Alarcos ( July 19, 1195) was a battle between an alliance of Almohads led by Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur and some Castilian cavalry In 1212 a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of the Castilian Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Alfonso VIII ( 11 November 1155 &ndash 5 October 1214) called the Noble or Él de las Navas, was the King The July 16 1212 battle of Las Navas de Tolosa ( Spanish: Batalla de Las Navas de Tolosa / Arabic: معركة العقاب The Almohads continued to rule Al Andalus for another decade, but with much reduced power and prestige; and the civil wars following the death of Abu Ya'qub Yusuf II rapidly led to the re-establishment of taifas. Yusuf II (also Abu Yaqub al-Mustansir Yusuf, 1197 &ndash 1224 (يوسف بن الناصر was Caliph of Morocco from 1213 until his death The taifas, newly independent but now weakened, were quickly conquered by Portugal, Castile and Aragon. After the fall of Murcia (1243) and the Algarve (1249), only the Kingdom of Granada survived as a Muslim state, but only as a tributary of Castile. Murcia ( is the capital city of the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia, located at the river Segura in south-eastern Spain. The Algarve ( pron aɫ'gaɾv(ɨ is the southernmost region of mainland Portugal. Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. Most of its tribute was paid in gold from present-day Mali and Burkina Faso that was carried to Iberia through the merchant routes of the Sahara. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Burkina Faso (bɚˌkiːnəˈfɑːsoʊ burr-KEE-na FAH-soh) also known by its short-form name Burkina, is a Landlocked nation in West Africa The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest

A manuscript page of the Qur'an in the script developed in al-Andalus, 12th century. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran

The last Muslim threat to the Christian kingdoms was the rise of the Marinids in Morocco during the 14th century, who took Granada into their sphere of influence and occupied some of its cities, like Algeciras. The Anglicised name used for this article derives from the Arabic Banu Marin (also Benī Merīn, which is the source of the Spanish name Algeciras - Arabic: الجزيرة الخضراء is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest urban area on the Bay of Gibraltar However, they were unable to take Tarifa, which held out until the arrival of the Castilian Army led by Alfonso XI. Tarifa is a small town on the southernmost coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Alfonso XI of Castile (Salamanca August 13, 1311 &ndash Gibraltar March 26/27 1350 was the king of Castile and León, the son of The Castilian king, helped by Afonso IV of Portugal and Pedro IV of Aragon, decisively defeated the Marinids at the Battle of Salado in 1340 and took Algeciras in 1344. Afonso IV (ɐˈfõsu 8 February 1291 &ndash 28 May 1357 called the Brave (o Bravo was the seventh king of Portugal and the Algarve from 1325 until his death Peter IV (also known as Pedro or Pere 5 September 1319, Balaguer – 5 January 1387) called the Ceremonious ( el Ceremonioso The Battle of Río Salado ( October 30, 1340) was a battle of King Afonso IV of Portugal and King Alfonso XI of Castile against sultan Gibraltar, then under Granadian rule, was besieged in 1349-1350, Alfonso XI along with most of his army perished by the Black Death. Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia His successor, Pedro of Castile, made peace with the Muslims and turned his attention to Christian lands, starting a period of almost 150 years of rebellions and wars between the Christian states that secured the survival of Granada. Peter (or Pedro; August 30, 1334 &ndash March 23, 1369) sometimes called the Cruel ( el Cruel) or

The Emirate of Granada

Following the peace treaty made with King Pedro of Castile, Granada survived for nearly 150 years more as a state. Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. Its Muslims were guaranteed virtual self-government, freedom of movement, complete religious freedom and even a three-year exemption from taxes after the surrender. After that they were to pay no more than they had under Nasrid rule.

In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile signaled the launching of the final assault on Granada, a campaign carefully planned and well financed. The King and Queen convinced the Pope to declare their war a crusade. The Christians crushed one center of resistance after another and finally, in January 1492, after a long siege, the Moorish king of Gharnatah (Granada), Muhammad abu Abdallah, surrendered the fortress palace, the renowned Alhambra itself. Abu 'abd-Allah Muhammad XII (أبو عبد الله محمد الثاني عشر (b This article is about the Alhambra in Granada Spain For other meanings see Alhambra (disambiguation.

See also: Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

Society

The society of Al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Christians, Muslims and Jews. Conquest (710–756 See also Umayyad conquest of Hispania 710 - The Berber General Tariq ibn Ziyad takes Tangier. The Muslims, though united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Berbers and the Arabs. Mozarabs were Christians that had long lived under Muslim domination and so had adopted many Arabic customs, art and words, while still maintaining their Christian rituals and their own Romance languages. The Mozarabs (in Spanish: mozárabes; in moçárabes in Catalan: mossàrabs; from musta'rib "مستعرب" “arabicized” Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities.

A later illustration, depicting the Jewish Soldiers fighting alongside the forces of Muhammed IX, Nasrid Sultan of Granada, at the Battle of Higueruela, 1431. The Nasrid dynasty or Banuu Nasri (بنو نصر was the last Arab and Muslim dynasty in Spain. Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. The Battle of Higueruela was fought at Higueruela on 1 July, 1431 between the forces of John II of Castile, led by Álvaro de Luna

The Berbers, who made up the bulk of the invaders, lived in the mountainous regions of what is now the north of Portugal and in the Meseta Central, while the Arabs settled in the south and in the Ebro Valley in the northeast. Spain is located in southwestern Europe and comprises about 84 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. The Jews worked mainly as tax collectors, in trade, or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the fifteenth century there were about 50,000 Jews in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia. ^[15]

Non-Muslims under the Caliphate

See also: Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula

Treatment of non-Muslims

The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the coexistence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world. For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. It has been stated that religious minorities were treated significantly better in Muslim-controlled Iberia than in Christian western Europe, living in a unique "golden age" of tolerance, respect and harmony. Though al-Andalus was specifically a key center of Jewish life during the early Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities, there is no clear scholarly consensus over whether the relationship between Jews and Muslims was truly a paragon of interfaith relations, or whether it was simply similar to the treatment Jews received elsewhere at the same time. Bernard Lewis takes issue with this view, arguing its modern use is ahistorical and apologetic. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American He argues that Islam traditionally did not offer such equality nor even pretended that it did, arguing that it would be both a "theological as well as a logical absurdity. "^[16]

María Rosa Menocal, a specialist in Iberian literature at Yale University, has argued that "Tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society". María Rosa Menocal is a scholar of Medieval culture and history ^[17] Menocal's 2003 book, The Ornament of the World, argues that the Jewish and Christian dhimmis living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were much better off than in other parts of Christian Europe. A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish Jews from other parts of Europe emigrated to al-Andalus, where they were treated with dignity — as were Christians of sects regarded as heretical by various European Christian states. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The pagan population were given the status of ahl al dhima(the people under protection), when there was a Christian authority in the community. When there was no Christian authority the pagans were given the status of "majus". Majūs ( Arabic and Persian: مجوس pl of majūsī) was originally a term meaning Zoroastrians (and specifically Zoroastrian priests ^[18] Overall, it appears that Jews living under Muslim rule in Al-Andalus lived significantly better lives than Jews living in Christian lands, although that changed once the fundamentalist Almoravid Muslims of North Africa took control of the peninsula. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan

Rise and fall of Muslim power

Image of a Jewish cantor reading the Passover story in al-Andalus, from a 14th century Spanish Haggadah. "Hazan" and "Chazan" redirect here For people named Hazan or Chazan see Hazan (disambiguation Growing importance of the office Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish The Haggadah (הגדה is a Jewish religious text that sets out the order of the Passover Seder.

The Caliphate treated non-Muslims differently at different times. The longest period of tolerance began after 912, with the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II where the Jews of Al-Andalus prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the Caliphate of Cordoba, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Abd-ar-Rahman III ( ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh; Arabic: عبد الرحمن الثالث January 11 889 – October Al-Hakam II ( al-Ḥakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III; Arabic: الحكم الثاني; January 13 915 - October 16 976 The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries. ^[19][20]

Christians, braced by the example of their coreligionists across the borders of al-Andalus, sometimes asserted the claims of Christianity and knowingly courted martyrdom, even during these tolerant periods. The term martyr ( Greek μάρτυς martys "witness" is most commonly used today to describe an individual who sacrifices their life (or personal freedom For example, 48 Christians of Córdoba were decapitated for religious offences against Islam. They became known as the Martyrs of Córdoba. The Hagiography of the forty-eight Martyrs of Córdoba was developed in Christian Spain, describing in detail their executions for capital violations These deaths played out, not in a single spasm of religious unrest, but over an extended period of time; dissenters were fully aware of the fates of their predecessors and chose to protest against Islamic rule. ^[21]

With the death of al-Hakam III in 976, the situation worsened for non-Muslims in general. The first major persecution occurred on December 30, 1066 when the Jews were expelled from Granada and fifteen hundred families were killed when they did not leave. Events 1460 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Wakefield. 1816 - The Treaty of St Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. Under the Almoravids and the Almohads there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews,^[22] but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture, though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i ^[23]

During these successive waves of violence against non-Muslims, many Jewish and even Muslim scholars left the Muslim-controlled portion of Iberia for the then-still relatively tolerant city of Toledo, which had been reconquered in 1085 by Christian forces. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Some Jews joined the armies of the Christians (about 40,000), while others joined the Almoravids in the fight against Alfonso VI of Castile. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during Alfonso VI (before June 1040 &ndash June 29 / July 1, 1109) nicknamed the Brave, was King of León from 1065 to 1109 and King of

The 11th century saw Muslim pogroms against Jews in Spain; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. ^[24][25][26]

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,^[27] far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. ^[28][29] Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,^[28] while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and ^[30][31] However, the Almohads also encouraged the arts and letters, especially the falsafah movement that included Ibn Tufail, Ibn al-Arabi and Averroes. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name For the Sufi scholar see Ibn Arabi. Ibn al-Arabi (أبو بكر بن العربي is not the famous Sufi Ibn Arabi, although the Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European ^[27]

Medieval Spain and Portugal was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. After the disorders of the passage of the Vandals and Alans down the Mediterranean coast of Hispania from 408, the history of Medieval Spain The history of Portugal, in most of the 12th and 13th centuries is chiefly that of its origin as a separate state in the process of the Christian Warfare refers to the conduct of conflict between opponents and usually involves escalation of aggression from the proverbial "war of words" between politicians Periodic raiding expeditions were sent from Al-Andalus to ravage the Christian Spanish and Portuguese kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another In raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor of Córdoba, in a subsequent attack upon Silves in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur (ابو يوسف يعقوب المنصور (c ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Silves ( pron 'siɫvɨʃ is a town and a municipality in the Algarve, southern Portugal. ^[32]

Culture

C. W. Previte-Orton writes in his Cambridge medieval history,^[33]

The brilliant Saracenic civilization of Moslem Spain rendered the Moors, even during their declines under the Reyes de Taifas, the most cultured people of the West. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent

Many tribes, religions and races coexisted in al-Andalus, each contributing to the intellectual prosperity of Andalusia. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than any other country of the West. ^[34]

From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids, and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to rival Baghdad's. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, freedom to travel between the two Caliphates was allowed, which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time.

In the 10th century, the city of Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had up to 600,000 books. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. A library is a collection of information sources resources and services and the structure in which it is housed it is organized for use and maintained by a public body an institution In comparison, the largest library in Christian Europe at the time had no more than 400 manuscripts, while the University of Paris library still had only 2,000 books later in the 14th century. The historic University of Paris (Université de Paris first appeared in the second half of the 13th century

Philosophy

Andalusian Islamic philosophy

The historian Said Al-Andalusi wrote that Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of medicine and "ancient sciences". Said al-Andalusí (1029 &ndash 1070 was an Andalusi Qadi, scientist and historian Abd-ar-Rahman III ( ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh; Arabic: عبد الرحمن الثالث January 11 889 – October Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Later, al-Mustansir (Al-Hakam II) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba. Al-Hakam II ( al-Ḥakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III; Arabic: الحكم الثاني; January 13 915 - October 16 976 Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate.

However, when Al-Hakam's son Hisham II took over, real power was ceded to the hajib, al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir. Hisham II (' ھشام) was the third Caliph of Cordoba, of the Umayyad dynasty This article is about the Andalusian Muslim general and statesman Al-Mansur (938 - 1002 Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy, logic and especially astrology, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense by Al-Hakam II, were burned publicly. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Al-Hakam II ( al-Ḥakam II ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III; Arabic: الحكم الثاني; January 13 915 - October 16 976 Book burning (a category of biblioclasm or book destruction is the practice of destroying often ceremoniously, one or more copies of a book or other written material However, with Al-Mansur's death in 1002 interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom". An outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology was Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (died 1008), an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond, and who kept in touch with the Brethren of Purity. Maslama al-Majriti ( Arabic أبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي) (b The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious Indeed, it is said to have been he who brought the 51 "Epistles of the Brethren of Purity" to al-Andalus and who added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar of the name al-Majriti. The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles Another book attributed to al-Majriti is the Ghayat al-Hakim "The Aim of the Sage", a book which explored a synthesis of Platonism with Hermetic philosophy. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it Hermes Trismegistus ( Greek:, "thrice-great Hermes" Latin: Mercurius ter Maximus) is the Syncretism of the Greek god Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although the Sufi communities kept studies of it. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف

A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometer Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani. Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani was a prominent philosopher and scholar from the Muslim Al-Andalus. A follower of his in turn was the great Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world as Ibn Bajjah, "Avempace". Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian

Jewish philosophy and culture

Main article: Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

With the relative tolerance of al-Andalus and the decline of the previous center of Jewish thought in Babylonia, al-Andalus became the center of Jewish intellectual endeavors. For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. Iraqi Jews are Jews born in Iraq or of Iraqi heritage The history of the Jews in Iraq is documented from the time of the Babylonian captivity c Poets and commentators like Judah Halevi (1086-1145) and Dunash ben Labrat (920-990) contributed to the cultural life of al-Andalus, but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. Yehuda Halevi, in full Yehuda ben Shemuel Ha-Levi, also Judah Halevi, or Judah ben Samuel Halevi ( Hebrew: יהודה הלוי) (c Dunash ha-Levi ben Labrat (920-990 ( Hebrew: דוֹנָש הלוי בֵּן לָבְרָט Arabic: دناش بن لبراط was a medieval Jewish commentator A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers, (see joint Jewish and Islamic philosophies) culminated in a widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages, Maimonides (1135-1205), though he did not actually do any of his work in al-Andalus, as, when he was 13, his family fled persecution by the Almohads. This article covers the influence of Jewish and Islamic philosophy on each other focusing especially on the period from 800-1400 CE Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i

Astronomy

Main article: Islamic astronomy

Economics

Main article: Islamic economics in the world

Linguistics

"The Toledo School" was a famous center of medieval linguistics. This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world. Members of this school included; Yehudah ibn Tibbon, Herman the German, Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. Adelard of Bath ( Latin: Adelardus Bathensis) (c 1080 &ndash c Gerard of Cremona ( Italian: Gerardo da Cremona; Latin: Gerardus Cremonensis; c

Medicine

Muslim physicians from al-Andalus contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including the subjects of anatomy and physiology. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), regarded as the "father of modern surgery",^[35] contributed greatly to the discipline of medical surgery with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine The works of such Greek physicians as Galen and Hippocrates were translated into Arabic. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca

Sociology

Main article: Early Muslim sociology

Technology

Main articles: Inventions in the Muslim world and Muslim Agricultural Revolution

See also

Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula Muslim conquests Umayyad Caliphate Caliphate of Córdoba Al'Garb Al'Andalus Almoravid dynasty Almohad dynasty La Convivencia Reconquista Islamic Golden Age Muslim conquests Muslim inventions Islamic science Islam in Spain History of Islam History of Spain History of Portugal Golden Age of the Jewish Spain Antisemitism in Al-Andalus Jews of the Bilad el-Sudan (West Africa) Jews and Judaism in Africa History of the Jews under Muslim rule Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula Arab diaspora Spaniards Berber people Andalusia Moors Dhimmi Morisco Mozarab Kemal Reis Barbary pirates Ottoman Navy List of Moorish writers

History of Spain series Prehistoric Iberia Roman Hispania Medieval Spain – Visigothic Kingdom – Suebic Kingdom – Byzantine Spania – al-Andalus – Reconquista Kingdom of Spain – Age of Expansion – Age of Enlightenment Reaction and Revolution First Spanish Republic The Restoration Second Spanish Republic Spanish Civil War Spain under Franco Transition to Democracy Modern Spain Topics Economic History Military History

History of Portugal series Prehistoric Iberia Oestriminis and Ophiussa Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici, Cynetes Roman conquest of Hispania Second Punic War and Lusitanian War Roman Hispania, Lusitania and Gallaecia Visigothic Kingdom and Suevi Moorish rule and Reconquista Asturian rule Leonese rule First County of Portugal County of Coimbra Kingdom of Galicia and Portugal Second County of Portugal Kingdom of Portugal Establishment of the Monarchy Consolidation of the Monarchy 1383–1385 Crisis Discoveries Portuguese Empire and its evolution 1580 Crisis and the Iberian Union Age of Enlightenment Invasions, Liberalism and Civil War Constitutional Monarchy First Republic Military dictatorship Estado Novo (New State) Third Republic Carnation Revolution to EEC 1990s 2000s Topics Economic history Cultural history Arts history Military history Colonial history Demographic history Diplomatic history Sports history Language history Music history  Timeline of Portuguese history

Footnotes

Bibliography

• Al-Djazairi, S. E. (2005). The Hidden Debt to Islamic Civilisation. Bayt Al-Hikma Press. ISBN 0-9551156-1-2
• Bossong, Georg. 2002. Der Name Al-Andalus: Neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem. In David Restle and Dietmar Zaefferer, eds, Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. A festschrift for Theo Vennemann. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 149-164. (In German) Also available online: see External Links below.
• Cohen, Mark (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01082-X
• Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797, Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19405-3
• Frank, Daniel H. and Leaman, Oliver (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521655749
• Halm, Heinz. 1989. Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors. Der Islam 66:252-263.
• Hamilton, Michelle M. , Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia. Newark, Del. : Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs, 2004.
• Harzig, Christiane, Hoerder, Dirk and Shubert, Adrian (2003). The Historical Practice in Diversity. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1571813772
• Kennedy, Hugh (1996). Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus, Longman. ISBN 0-582-49515-6
• Kraemer, Joel (Jul, 1997). Comparing Crescent and Cross. The Journal of Religion, 77(3), pp. 449-454. (Book review)
• Kraemer, Joel (2005). Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait. In Kenneth Seeskin (Ed. ). The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521819741
• Lafuente y Alcántara, Emilio, translator. 1867. Ajbar Machmua (colección de tradiciones): crónica anónima del siglo XI / dada a luz por primera vez, traducida y anotada por Emilio Lafuente y Alcántara. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia y Geografía. In Spanish and Arabic. Also available in the public domain online, see External Links.
• Luscombe, David et al. (Eds. ). (2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024-c. 1198, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41411-3
• Marín, Manuela et al. (Eds. ). (1998). The Formation of Al-Andalus: History and Society. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-708-7
• Menocal, Maria Rosa (2002). Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-16871-8
• Monroe, James T. Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
• Netanyahu, Benzion (1995). The Origins Of The Inquisition In Fifteenth Century Spain. Random House, Inc. ISBN 0-679-41065-1
• O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1975). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801492645
• Omaar, Rageh, An Islamic History of Europe. Rageh Omaar ( Raage Awmaar, راجح عمر (born 19 July 1967) is a British television news presenter and writer of Somali origin video documentary, BBC Four: August 2005.
• Reilly, Bernard F. (1993). The Medieval Spains. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521397413
• Roth, Norman (1994). Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict. Brill. ISBN 9004061312
• Sanchez-Albornoz, Claudio (1974) El Islam de España y el Occidente. Madrid.
• Stavans, Ilan (2003). The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature. London: Routledge. ISBN 041592930X
• Wasserstein, David J. (1995). Jewish élites in Al-Andalus. In Daniel Frank (Ed. ). The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity. Brill. ISBN 90-04-10404-6

Films

• Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain (Unity Productions Foundation documentary)

External links

• Paper by Georg Bossong evaluating proposals for the etymology of "al-Andalus". In German.
• Photocopy of the Ajbar Machmu'a, translated by Lafuente 1867
• The routes of al-Andalus (from the UNESCO web site)
• Muslim contributions to Andalus
• History and influences of Andalusian music
• The Library of Iberian Resources Online
• Al-Andalus Chronology and Photos