Akiva redirects here. For other people and things with this name, see Akiva (disambiguation). Akiva may refer to People Akiba ben Joseph, a Judean tanna and the father of Rabbanical Judaism Akiva Eger

Rabbinical Eras
Zugot Tannaim Amoraim Savoraim Geonim Rishonim Acharonim

Akiba ben Joseph (ca. Zugot (תְּקוּפָת הַזּוּגוֹת ( (təqūphāth hazZūghôth) refers to the period during the time of the Second Temple (515 BCE - 70 CE in which word /š n/ and /t n/ --> Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura 50–ca. 135 AD) (Hebrew: עקיבא) or simply Rabbi Akiva was a Judean tanna of the latter part of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century (3rd tannaitic generation). Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised word /š n/ and /t n/ --> The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism He was a great authority in the matter of Jewish tradition, and one of the most central and essential contributors to the Mishnah and Midrash Halakha. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Midrashim are mostly derived from and based upon the teachings of the Tannaim: He is referred to in the Talmud as "Rosh la-Chachomim" (Head of all the Sages). The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history He is considered by many to be the godfather of rabbinical Judaism^[1]. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora

Contents 1 Parentage and youth 2 Akiba and his wife 3 His Relations with Bar Kokba 4 His Personal Character 5 Akiba and Gamaliel II 6 Akiba as Systematizer 7 Akiba's Halakah 8 Akiba's Hermeneutic System 9 Religious Philosophy 10 Freedom of Will 11 God's Two Attributes 12 Eschatology and Ethics 13 The Messianic Age 14 Legends 14.1 His innovative method 14.2 His transformation 14.3 His martydom 14.4 His students 14.5 His wealth and influence 14.6 His relationship with his wife 14.7 His Favorite Maxim 14.8 Akiba and the Dead 15 References 16 Notes 17 See also 18 External links

Parentage and youth

A great many legends have been passed down about Akiva. But despite the rich mass of material afforded by rabbinical sources, only an incomplete portrait can be drawn of the man who marked out the path followed by rabbinical Judaism for almost two millennia. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora

Akiba ben Joseph (written עקיבא in the Babylonian talmud, and עקיבה in the Jerusalem talmud — another form for עקביה) who is usually called simply Akiba, was of comparatively humble parentage^[2]. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection A misunderstanding of the expression "Zechus Avos" (Ber. l. c. ), joined to a tradition concerning Sisera, captain of the army of Hazor (Giṭ. 57b, Sanh. 96b), is the source of another tradition (Nissim Gaon to Ber. Sisera, Heb סיסרא mentioned in the Book of Judges 42 in the Hebrew Bible, was the captain of Jabin 's army which was routed and destroyed Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie Nissim Ben Jacob ( Rav Nissim Gaon, 990-1062 Hebrew: ניסים בן יעקב) was a Rabbi and Talmudist best known today for his Talmudic l. c. ), which makes Akiva a descendant of Sisera. Of the romantic story of Akiva's marriage with the daughter of the wealthy Jerusalemite, Kalba Savua, whose shepherd he is said to have been (see below "Akiba and his wife" and "His relationship with his wife"), only this is known to be true: that Akiva was a shepherd (Yeb. 86b; compare ibid. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women 16a). His wife's name was Rachel (Ab. R. N. ed. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably S. Schechter, vi. Solomon Schechter שניאור זלמן שכטר ( December 7, 1847 - November 19[[ 915]] was a Moldavian born Romanian and English 29), and she was the daughter of an entirely unknown man named Joshua, who is specifically mentioned (Yad. iii. Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) 5) as Akiva's father-in-law. She stood loyally by her husband during that critical period of his life in which Akiva, thitherto the mortal enemy of the rabbis and an am ha-aretz (ignoramus) (Pes. 49b), decided to place himself at the feet of those previously detested men. Pesahim ( Hebrew: פסחים lit "Passovers" is the third tractate of Seder Moed ("Order of Festivals" of the Mishnah Prior to this change of heart, he used to say: "O that I would find a Talmid Chacham and bite him like a donkey" [Exact quote needed. Talmid Chacham ( Hebrew: תלמיד חכם, "wise student" pl ] (Pesachim, 49b). Pesahim ( Hebrew: פסחים lit "Passovers" is the third tractate of Seder Moed ("Order of Festivals" of the Mishnah

A reliable tradition (Ab. R. N. l. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably c. ) narrates that Akiva at the age of 40, and when he was the father of a numerous family dependent upon him, eagerly attended the academy of his native town, Lod, presided over by Eliezer ben Hyrkanus. Lod (לוֹד اَلْلُدّْ al-Ludd; Greco-Latin Lydda) is a mixed Arab - Jewish city about 15 km southeast of Tel Aviv in According to the Talmud, Hyrcanus was a neighbor of Joseph, the father of Akiva. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The fact that Eliezer was his first teacher, and the only one whom Akiva later designates as "rabbi," is of importance in settling the date of Akiva's birth. It is known that in 95–96 Akiba had already attained great prominence (H. Grätz, Gesch. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish d. Juden, 2d ed. , iv. 121), and, further, that he studied for 13 years before becoming a teacher himself (Ab. R. N. l. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably c. ). Thus the beginning of his years of study would fall about 75–80. Earlier than this, Yochanan ben Zakai was living, and Eliezer, being his pupil, would have been held of no authority in Johanan's lifetime. Yochanan ben Zakai (יוחנן בן זכאי c 30 BCE - 90 CE) was one of the Tannaim, an important Jewish sage in the era of the Second Temple Consequently, if we accept the tradition that Akiva was 40 when beginning the study of the Law, he must have been born about 40–50.

Besides Eliezer, Akiva had other teachers—principally Joshua ben Hananiah (Ab. R. N. l. Joshua ben Hananiah ( Hebrew: יהושע בן חנניה d131CE was a leading tanna of the first half-century following the destruction of the Temple Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably c. ) and Nahum Ish Gamzu (Hag. 12a). The Book of Haggai is a book of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament, written by the prophet Haggai. He was on equal footing with Rabban Gamaliel II, whom he met later. Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel רבן גמליאל דיבנה was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as Nasi after the fall of the second temple which In a certain sense, Tarphon was considered as one of Akiba's masters (Ket. 84b), but the pupil outranked his teacher, and Tarphon became one of Akiba's greatest admirers (Sifre, Num. 75). Rabbi Tarfon or Tarphon, ( Hebrew: רבי טרפון, from the Greek Tryphon) a member of the third generation of the Mishnah Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. Akiba probably remained in Lod (R. H. i. Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה is the name of a text of Jewish law originating in the Mishnah which formed the basis of tractates in both the Babylonian Talmud 6), as long as Eliezer dwelt there, and then removed his own school to Bene Berak, five Roman miles from Jaffa (Sanh. 32b; Tosef., Shab. iii. Bnei Brak (or Bene Beraq) (בְּנֵי בְּרַק Bəne Bəraq) is a city located on Israel 's central Mediterranean coastal plain Jaffa يَافَا;(יָפוֹ Yafo; also Japho, Joppa) is an ancient Port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud [iv. ] 3). Akiba also lived for some time at Ziphron (Num. xxxiv. The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. 9), the modern Zafrân (Z. P. V. viii. 28), near Hamath (see Sifre, Num. iv. Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. , and the parallel passages quoted in the Talmudical dictionaries of Levy and M. Jastrow). The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Marcus Mordechai Jastrow ( June 5, 1829 &ndash October 13, 1903) was a renowned Talmudic scholar most famously known for his For another identification of the place, and other forms of its name, see A. Neubauer, Géographie, p. Adolf Neubauer ( March 11, 1831 –1907 was sublibrarian at the Bodleian Library and reader in Rabbinic Hebrew at Oxford University. 391, and M. Jastrow, l. Marcus Mordechai Jastrow ( June 5, 1829 &ndash October 13, 1903) was a renowned Talmudic scholar most famously known for his c.

Among Akiva's other contemporaries were Elisha ben Avuya, Eliezer ben Tzodok, Eleazar ben Azaria, Gamliel II, Yehuda ben Betheira, Yochanan ben Nuri, Yosi Haglili, Rabbi Yishmael and Chanina ben Dosa. Elisha ben Abuyah (אלישע בן אבויה (spelled variously including Elisha ben Avuya) was a Rabbi and Jewish religious authority born in Jerusalem Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah ( Hebrew: רבי אלעזר בן עזריה) was a Mishnaic scholar of the second generation (1st century C Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel רבן גמליאל דיבנה was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as Nasi after the fall of the second temple which Judah ben Bathyra or simply Judah Bathyra (also Beseira, Hebrew: יהודה בן בתירא) was an eminent tanna. Yochanan ben Nuri ( Hebrew: יוחנן בן נורי) was a Tanna of the first and second centuries junior of Gamaliel II and senior of Jose the Galilean ( Hebrew: יוסי הגלילי Yose ha-Gelili) was a Jew who lived in the first and second centuries of the common Ishmael ben Elisha (90-135 CE commonly known as Rabbi Ishmael, Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל) was a Tanna of the first and second Hanina Ben Dosa (1st century CE) was a scholar and miracle-worker and the pupil of Johanan ben Zakkai ( Berakhot, 34b

Akiba and his wife

According to the Talmud, it would appear that Akiba owed almost everything to his wife. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Akiba was a shepherd in the employ of the rich and respected Kalba Sabu'a, whose daughter took a liking to him, the modest, conscientious servant. She consented to secret betrothal on the condition that he thenceforth devote himself to study. When the wealthy father-in-law learned of this secret betrothal, he drove his daughter from his house, and swore that he would never help her while Akiba remained her husband. Akiba, with his young wife, lived perforce in the most straitened circumstances. Indeed, so poverty-stricken did they become that the bride had to sell her hair to enable her husband to pursue his studies. But these very straits only served to bring out Akiba's greatness of character. It is related that once, when a bundle of straw was the only bed they possessed, a poor man came to beg some straw for a bed for his sick wife. Akiba at once divided with him his scanty possession, remarking to his wife, "Thou seest, my child, there are those poorer than we!" This pretended poor man was none other than the prophet Elijah, who had come to test Akiba (Ned. 50a). Elijah or Elias ( was a Prophet in Israel in the 9th century BC Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women

By agreement with his wife, Akiba spent fourteen years away from her, pursuing his studies under Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah. Eliezer ben Hurcanus (אליעזר בן הורקנוס was one of the most prominent Tannaim of the 1st and 2nd centuries disciple of R Joshua ben Hananiah ( Hebrew: יהושע בן חנניה d131CE was a leading tanna of the first half-century following the destruction of the Temple Returning at the end of that time, he was just about to enter his wretched home, when he overheard the following answer given by his wife to a neighbor who was bitterly censuring him for his long absence: "If I had my wish, he should stay another fourteen years at the academy. " Without crossing the threshold, Akiba turned about and went back to the academy, to return at the expiration of another fourteen years. The second time, however, he came back as a most famous scholar, escorted by 24,000 disciples, who reverently followed their beloved master. When his poorly clad wife was about to embrace him, some of his students, not knowing who she was, sought to restrain her. But Akiba exclaimed, "Let her alone; for what I am, and for what you are, is hers" (she deserves the credit) (Ned. 50a, Ket. 62b et seq. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women ).

See "His relationship with his wife" below for the full story from the Talmud. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history

His Relations with Bar Kokba

The greatest tannaim of the middle of the 2nd century came from Akiba's school, notably Rabbi Meir, Judah ben Ilai, Simeon ben Yohai, Jose ben Halafta, Eleazar ben Shammai, and Rabbi Nehemiah. word /š n/ and /t n/ --> Rabbi Meir or Reb Meir Baal Haneis (or Hanes (lit Rabbi Meir Master of the Miracle) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishna. Rabbi Judah ben Ilai, also known as Rabbi Judah, was a Tanna (a sage recorded in the Mishna) who lived in the 2nd Century. Shimon bar Yohai, ( Aramaic: רבן שמעון בר יוחאי Shimon son of Yohai, Simon son of Yohai or Rashbi (רשב"י pronounced Rabbi Jose ben Halafta or Yose ben Halafta ( Hebrew: רבי יוסי בן חלפתא) was a Tanna of the fourth generation (2nd century CE Rabbi Nehemiah was a Hebrew Priest, Circa AD 150 (during the Tannaim era Besides these, who all attained great renown, Akiba undoubtedly had many disciples whose names have not been handed down, but whose number is variously stated by the Aggadah at 12,000 (Gen. R. lxi. Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period 3), 24,000 (Yeb. 62b), and 48,000 (Ned. 50a). Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women That these figures are to be regarded merely as haggadic exaggerations, and not, as some modern historians insist, as the actual numbers of Akiba's political followers, is evident from the passage, Ket. 106a, in which there are similar exaggerations concerning the disciples of other rabbis. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women

The part which Akiba is said to have taken in the Bar Kokba revolt cannot be historically determined. Background After the failed Great Jewish Revolt in the year 70 the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province The only established fact concerning his connection with Bar Kokba is that the venerable teacher regarded the patriot as the promised Jewish Messiah (Yer. Ta'anit, iv. Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection A ta'anit or taanis is a fast in Judaism. A Jewish fast may have one or more purposes including A tool for repentance 68d), and this is absolutely all there is in evidence of an active participation by Akiba in the revolution. In this regard, Akiva expounded the following verse homiletically: "A star has shot off Jacob" (Numbers 24:17) and so nicknamed the rebel as Kochva, "the star", rather than Kozieva. Homiletics ( Gr homiletikos, from homilos, to assemble together in Theology the application of the general principles of Rhetoric When Akiva would see bar Kochba, he would say: "Dein hu Malka Meshiecha!" (This is the King Messiah) (Jerusalem Talmud, Ta'anit 4:8). Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection A ta'anit or taanis is a fast in Judaism. A Jewish fast may have one or more purposes including A tool for repentance The numerous journeys which, according to rabbinical sources, Akiba is said to have made, cannot have been in any way connected with politics. In 95–96 Akiba was in Rome (H. Grätz, Gesch. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish d. Juden, iv. 121), and some time before 110 he was in Nehardea (Yeb. xvi. Nehardea or Nehardeah was a City of Babylonia, situated at or near the junction of the Euphrates with the Nahr Malka (also known as Nâr Sharri Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women 7), which journeys cannot be made to coincide with revolutionary plans.

In view of the mode of traveling then in vogue, it is not at all improbable that Akiba visited en route numerous other places having important Jewish communities (Neuburger in Monatsschrift, 1873, p. 393), but information on this point is lacking. The statement that he dwelt in Gazaka in Media rests upon a false reading in Gen. R. xxxiii. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period 5, and Ab. Zarah, 34a, where for "Akiba" should be read "UḲba," the Babylonian, as Rashi on Ta'anit, 11b, points out. Avodah Zarah ( Hebrew: "foreign worship" meaning " Idolatry " is the name of a Tractate in the Talmud, located For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi A ta'anit or taanis is a fast in Judaism. A Jewish fast may have one or more purposes including A tool for repentance Similarly the passage in Ber. 8b should read "Simon ben Gamaliel" instead of Akiba, just as the PesiḲta (ed. See also Anales de Química Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France Shimon ben Gamliel (שמעון בן גמליאל c 10 BCE - 70 CE) was a Tannaist sage and leader of the Jewish people S. Buber, iv. Solomon (or Salomon Buber (1827&ndash1906 was a Jewish Galician scholar and editor of Hebrew works 33b) has it. A sufficient ground for refusing credence in any participation by Akiba in the political anti-Roman movements of his day is the statement of the Baraita (Ber. 61b) that he suffered martyrdom on account of his transgression of Hadrian's edicts against the practice and the teaching of the Jewish religion, a religious and not a political reason for his death being given. Baraita ( Aramaic ברייתא "external" "outside" pl See also Anales de Química Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after

Akiba's death, which according to Sanh. 12a occurred after several years of imprisonment, must have taken place about 132, before the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt, otherwise, as Z. Frankel (Darke ha-Mishnah, p. Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie Background After the failed Great Jewish Revolt in the year 70 the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province Zecharias Frankel ( 30 September, 1801 – 13 February 1875) was a Bohemian-German Rabbi and a historian who studied the historical development 121) remarks, the delay of the Romans in executing him would be quite inexplicable. That the religious interdicts of Hadrian preceded the overthrow of Bar Kokba, is shown by Mek., Mishpaṭim, 18, where Akiba regards the martyrdom of two of his friends as ominous of his own fate. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. Mishpatim (משפטים — Hebrew for “laws” is the eighteenth Weekly Torah portion ( parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah After the fall of Bethar no omens were needed to predict evil days. The Betar Movement (בית"ר also spelled Beitar) is a Revisionist Zionist youth movement founded in 1923 in Legends concerning the date and manner of Akiba's death are numerous, but according to Crawford Howell Toy and Louis Ginzberg in the Jewish Encyclopedia, they must all be disregarded as being without historical foundation. Crawford Howell Toy (1836&ndash1919 American Hebrew scholar was born in Norfolk Virginia, on 23 March 1836. Rabbi Louis Ginzberg was one of the outstanding Talmudists of the twentieth century

However Jewish sources relate that he was subjected to a Roman torture where his skin was flayed with iron combs. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally Flaying is the removal of Skin from the Body. Generally an attempt is made to keep the removed portion of skin intact Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 As this was happening, astonishingly - especially for those performing the torture - he was saying the Shema prayer. Shema Yisrael (or Sh'ma Yisroel or just Shema) ( Hebrew: שמע ישראל "Hear Israel" are the first two words of a section of As they got to his forehead area where a Jewish man lays Tefillin he expired. Tefillin, ( תפילין) also called phylacteries, are a pair of black leather boxes containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with biblical verses

His Personal Character

An example of his modesty is his funeral address over his son Simon. To the large assembly gathered on the occasion from every quarter, he said (Sem. viii. Ebel Rabbati ( Hebrew: אבל רבתי) is one of the later or Minor tractates which in the editions of the Babylonian Talmud are placed after , M. ḳ. 21b). Mo'ed Katan (Hebrew מועד קטן, lit "little festival" is the eleventh tractate Seder Moed of the Mishnah and the Talmud

Brethren of the house of Israel, listen to me. Not because I am a scholar have ye appeared here so numerously; for there are those here more learned than I. Nor because I am a wealthy man; for there are many more wealthy than I. The people of the south know Akiba; but whence should the people of Galilee know him? The men are acquainted with him; but how shall the women and children I see here be said to be acquainted with him? Still I know that your reward shall be great, for ye have given yourselves the trouble to come simply in order to do honor to the Torah and to fulfill a religious duty. "Galil" redirects here For the weapon see IMI Galil. Galilee (הגליל ha-Galil, lit the province,

Akiba and Gamaliel II

Modesty is a favorite theme with Akiba, and he reverts to it again and again. "He who esteems himself highly on account of his knowledge," he teaches, "is like a corpse lying on the wayside: the traveler turns his head away in disgust, and walks quickly by" (Ab. R. N., ed. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably S. Schechter, xi. Solomon Schechter שניאור זלמן שכטר ( December 7, 1847 - November 19[[ 915]] was a Moldavian born Romanian and English 46). Another of his sayings, quoted also in the name of Ben Azzai (Lev. R. i. Simeon ben Azzai or simply Ben Azzai ( Hebrew: שמעון בן עזאי) was a distinguished tanna of the first third of the 2nd century Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayikra Rabbah is a homiletic Midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus ( Vayikrah in Hebrew 5), is specially interesting from the fact that Book of Luke, xiv. The Gospel of Luke (Gk Κατά Λουκάν Ευαγγέλιον) is a synoptic Gospel, and is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the 8-12, is almost literally identical with it: "Take thy place a few seats below thy rank until thou art bidden to take a higher place; for it is better that they should say to thee 'Come up higher' than that they should bid thee 'Go down lower'" (see Prov. xxv. The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh, and thus also one of the books of the Old Testament. 7).

Though so modest, yet when an important matter and not a merely personal one was concerned Akiba could not be cowed by the greatest, as is evidenced by his attitude toward the patriarch Gamaliel II. Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel רבן גמליאל דיבנה was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as Nasi after the fall of the second temple which Convinced of the necessity of a central authority for Judaism, Akiba became a devoted adherent and friend of Gamaliel, who aimed at constituting the patriarch the true spiritual chief of the Jews (R. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut H. ii. 9). But Akiba was just as firmly convinced that the power of the patriarch must be limited both by the written and the oral law, the interpretation of which lay in the hands of the learned; and he was accordingly brave enough to act in ritual matters in Gamaliel's own house contrary to the decisions of Gamaliel himself^[3]. Concerning Akiba's other personal excellences, such as benevolence, and kindness toward the sick and needy, see Ned. 40a, Lev. R. xxxiv. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayikra Rabbah is a homiletic Midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus ( Vayikrah in Hebrew 16, and Tosef., Meg. iv. The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud 16. Akiba filled the office of an overseer of the poor^[4].

Eminent as Akiba was by his magnanimity and moral worthiness, he was still more so by his intellectual capacity, by which he secured an enduring influence upon his contemporaries and upon posterity. In the first place, Akiba was the one who definitely fixed the canon of the Old Testament books. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. He protested strongly against the canonicity of certain of the Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus, for instance (Sanh. x. Sirach, by Ben Sira, also known as The Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, or Ecclesiasticus Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie 1, Bab. ibid. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history 100b, Yer. ibid. The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection x. 28a), in which passages קורא is to be explained according to ḳid. 49a, and חיצונים according to its Aramaic equivalent ברייתא; so that Akiba's utterance reads, "He who reads aloud in the synagogue from books not belonging to the canon as if they were canonical," etc. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Aramaic is a Semitic language with

He has, however, no objection to the private reading of the Apocrypha, as is evident from the fact that he himself makes frequent use of Ecclesiasticus (W. Bacher, Ag. Sirach, by Ben Sira, also known as The Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, or Ecclesiasticus Wilhelm Bacher ( January 12, 1850 –1913 was a Hungarian scholar Orientalist, and linguist, born in Liptó-Szent-Miklós Tan. i. 277; H. Grätz, Gnosticismus, p. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish 120). Akiba stoutly defended, however, the canonicity of the Song of Songs, and Esther (Yad. iii. Esther ( born Hadassah, is a queen of Persian Empire in the Hebrew Bible, the queen of Ahasuerus (traditionally identified with Artaxerxes Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) 5, Meg. 7a). Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud Grätz's statements (Shir ha-Shirim, p. 115, and Kohelet, p. 169) respecting Akiba's attitude toward the canonicity of the Song of Songs are misconceptions, as I.H. Weiss (Dor, ii. Isaac Hirsch Weiss ( February 9, 1815 – June 1, 1905) ( Hebrew: יצחק הירש ווייס) was an Austrian 97) has to some extent shown. To the same motive underlying his antagonism to the Apocrypha, namely, the desire to disarm Christians—especially Jewish Christians—who drew their "proofs" from the Apocrypha, must also be attributed his wish to emancipate the Jews of the Dispersion from the domination of the Septuagint, the errors and inaccuracies in which frequently distorted the true meaning of Scripture, and were even used as arguments against the Jews by the Christians. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is

Aquila was a man after Akiba's own heart; under Akiba's guidance he gave the Greek-speaking Jews a rabbinical Bible (Jerome on Isa. viii. Aquila of Sinope was a 2nd Century AD native of Pontus in Anatolia known for producing an exceedingly literal translation of the Hebrew Bible into Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος The Book of Isaiah ( Hebrew: Sefer Y'sha'yah ספר ישעיה is a book of the Bible traditionally attributed to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived 14, Yer. ḳid. i. The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women 59a). Akiba probably also provided for a revised text of the Targums; certainly, for the essential base of the so-called Targum Onkelos, which in matters of Halakah reflects Akiba's opinions completely (F. A targum ( Hebrew: תרגום plural targumim, lit "translation interpretation" is an Aramaic Translation of the Hebrew Targum Onkelos (or Unkelus) is the official eastern ( Babylonian) Targum to the Torah. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Rosenthal, Bet Talmud, ii. 280).

Akiba as Systematizer

Akiba's true genius, however, is shown in his work in the domain of the Halakah, both in his systematization of its traditional material and in its further development. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law The condition of the Halakah, that is, of religious praxis, and indeed of Judaism in general, was a very precarious one at the turn of the first century of the common era. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The lack of any systematized collection of the accumulated Halakot rendered impossible any presentation of them in form suitable for practical purposes. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Means for the theoretical study of the Halakah were also scant; both logic and exegesis—the two props of the Halakah—being differently conceived by the various ruling tannaim, and differently taught. word /š n/ and /t n/ --> According to a tradition which has historical confirmation, it was Akiba who systematized and brought into methodic arrangement the Mishnah, or Halakah codex; the Midrash, or the exegesis of the Halakah; and the Halakot, the logical amplification of the Halakah (Yer. SheḲ. v. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection Shekel also rendered sheqel, refers to one of many ancient units of Weight and Currency. 48c, according to the correct text given by Rabbinowicz, DiḲduḲe Soferim, p. 42; compare Giṭ. 67a and Dünner, in Monatsschrift, xx. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women 453, also W. Bacher, in Rev. Wilhelm Bacher ( January 12, 1850 –1913 was a Hungarian scholar Orientalist, and linguist, born in Liptó-Szent-Miklós Ét. Juives, xxxviii. 215. ) The Mishna of Akiva, as his pupil Meir had taken it from him, became the basis of the Six Orders of the Mishna.

The δευτερώσεις τοῦ καλουμένου Ραββὶ Ακιβά mentioned by Epiphanius (Adversus Hæreses, xxxiii. In early Christian Heresiology, the Panarion (Greek Πανάριον "Medicine Chest" also known as Adversus Haereses (Latin "Against 9, and xv. , end), as well as the "great Mishnayot of Akiba" in the Midr. Cant. R. viii. Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah ( Hebrew: שיר השירים רבה) is a Haggadic midrash on Canticles, quoted by Rashi under the title "Midrash 2, Eccl. R. vi. Ecclesiastes Rabbah or Kohelet Rabbah ( קהלת רבה) is an Haggadic commentary on Ecclesiastes, included in the collection of the Midrash 2, are probably not to be understood as independent Mishnayot (δευτερώσεις) existing at that time, but as the teachings and opinions of Akiba contained in the officially recognized Mishnayot and Midrashim. But at the same time it is fair to consider the Mishnah of Judah ha-Nasi (called simply "the Mishnah") as derived from the school of Akiba; and the majority of halakic Midrashim now extant are also to be thus credited.

Johanan bar Nappaḥa (199–279) has left the following important note relative to the composition and editing of the Mishnah and other halakic works: "Our Mishnah comes directly from Rabbi Meir, the Tosefta from R. Nehemiah, the Sifra from R. Judah, and the Sifre from R. Simon; but they all took Akiba for a model in their works and followed him" (Sanh. 86a). The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Rabbi Meir or Reb Meir Baal Haneis (or Hanes (lit Rabbi Meir Master of the Miracle) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishna. The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Rabbi Nehemiah was a Hebrew Priest, Circa AD 150 (during the Tannaim era Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two Shimon bar Yohai, ( Aramaic: רבן שמעון בר יוחאי Shimon son of Yohai, Simon son of Yohai or Rashbi (רשב"י pronounced Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie One recognizes here the threefold division of the halakic material that emanated from Akiba: (1) The codified Halakah (which is Mishnah); (2) the Tosefta, which in its original form contains a concise logical argument for the Mishnah, somewhat like the Lebush of Mordecai Jafe on the Shulḥan 'Aruk; (3) the halakic Midrash. Rabbi Mordecai ben Avraham Yoffe (or Jaffe) (c 1530 Prague - March 7, 1612, Posen) ( Hebrew: מרדכי בן אברהם

The following may be mentioned here as the halakic Midrashim originating in Akiba's school: the Mekilta of Rabbi Simon (in manuscript only) on Exodus; Sifra on Leviticus; Sifre Zuṭṭa on the Book of Numbers (excerpts in YalḲ. Shim'oni, and a manuscript in Midrash ha-Gadol, (edited for the first time by B. The Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon ( Hebrew: מכילתא דרבי שמעון בר יוחאי) is a Halakic midrash on Exodus from the school of Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Leviticus (from Greek Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites " The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. The Yalkut Shimoni ( Hebrew: ילקוט שמעוני) or simply Yalkut is an Aggadic compilation on the books of the Old Testament Midrash ha-Gadol or The Great Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש הגדול) is an anonymous late (14th century compilation of Aggadic midrashim on the Koenigsberger, 1894); and the Sifre to Deuteronomy, the halakic portion of which belongs to Akiba's school. Deuteronomy (Greek deuteronomion, Δευτερονόμιον "second law" is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament

What was Rabbi Akiva like? - A worker who goes out with his basket. He finds wheat - he puts it in, barley - he puts it in, spelt - he puts it in, beans - he puts it in, lentils - he puts it in. When he arrives home he sorts out the wheat by itself, barley by itself, spelt by itself, beans by themselves, lentils by themselves. So did Rabbi Akiva; he arranged the Torah rings by rings. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to

– Avot deRabbi Natan ch. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably 18; see also Gittin, 67a

Akiba's Halakah

Admirable as is the systematization of the Halakah by Akiba, his hermeneutics and halakic exegesis—which form the foundation of all Talmudic learning—surpassed it. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law A rule was later established: "whenever Rabbi Akiva disputes a single sage, the halakhic ruling follows him, but not so when he disputes more than one sage. "

The enormous difference between the Halakah before and after Akiba may be briefly described as follows: The old Halakah was, as its name indicates, the religious practice sanctioned as binding by tradition, to which were added extensions, and, in some cases, limitations, of the Torah, arrived at by strict logical deduction. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to The opposition offered by the Sadducees—which became especially strenuous in the last century B. The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party C. —originated the halakic Midrash, whose mission it was to deduce these amplifications of the Law, by tradition and logic, out of the Law itself. The Midrashim are mostly derived from and based upon the teachings of the Tannaim:

It might be thought that with the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem—which event made an end of Sadduceeism—the halakic Midrash would also have disappeared, seeing that the Halakah could now dispense with the Midrash. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party The Midrashim are mostly derived from and based upon the teachings of the Tannaim: This probably would have been the case had not Akiba created his own Midrash, by means of which he was able "to discover things that were even unknown to Moses" (PesiḲ., Parah, ed. Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) S. Buber, 39b). Solomon (or Salomon Buber (1827&ndash1906 was a Jewish Galician scholar and editor of Hebrew works Akiba made the accumulated treasure of the oral law—which until his time was only a subject of knowledge, and not a science—an inexhaustible mine from which, by the means he provided, new treasures might be continually extracted.

If the older Halakah is to be considered as the product of the internal struggle between Phariseeism and Sadduceeism, the Halakah of Akiba must be conceived as the result of an external contest between Judaism on the one hand and Hellenism and Hellenistic Christianity on the other. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Akiba no doubt perceived that the intellectual bond uniting the Jews—far from being allowed to disappear with the destruction of the Jewish state—must be made to draw them closer together than before. He pondered also the nature of that bond. The Bible could never again fill the place alone; for the Christians also regarded it as a divine revelation. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Still less could dogma serve the purpose, for dogmas were always repellent to rabbinical Judaism, whose very essence is development and the susceptibility to development. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora Mention has already been made of the fact that Akiba was the creator of a rabbinical Bible version elaborated with the aid of his pupil, Aquila, and designed to become the common property of all Jews, thus Judaizing the Bible, as it were, in opposition to the Christians. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Aquila of Sinope was a 2nd Century AD native of Pontus in Anatolia known for producing an exceedingly literal translation of the Hebrew Bible into

But this was not sufficient to obviate all threatening danger. It was to be feared that the Jews, by their facility in accommodating themselves to surrounding circumstances—even then a marked characteristic—might become entangled in the net of Grecian philosophy, and even in that of Gnosticism. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems The example of his colleagues and friends, Elisha ben Abuyah, Ben Azzai, and Ben Zoma strengthened him still more in his conviction of the necessity of providing some counterpoise to the intellectual influence of the non-Jewish world. Elisha ben Abuyah (אלישע בן אבויה (spelled variously including Elisha ben Avuya) was a Rabbi and Jewish religious authority born in Jerusalem Simeon ben Azzai or simply Ben Azzai ( Hebrew: שמעון בן עזאי) was a distinguished tanna of the first third of the 2nd century Simon ben Zoma or simply Ben Zoma ( Hebrew: בן זומא) was a Tanna of the first third of the second century

Akiba's Hermeneutic System

Akiba sought to apply the system of isolation followed by the Pharisees (פרושים = those who "separate" themselves) to doctrine as they did to practise, to the intellectual life as they did to that of daily intercourse, and he succeeded in furnishing a firm foundation for his system. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" As the fundamental principle of his system, Akiba enunciates his conviction that the mode of expression used by the Torah is quite different from that of every other book. In the language of the Torah nothing is mere form; everything is essence. It has nothing superfluous; not a word, not a syllable, not even a letter. Every peculiarity of diction, every particle, every sign, is to be considered as of higher importance, as having a wider relation and as being of deeper meaning than it seems to have. Like Philo (see Siegfried, Philo, p. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria 168), who saw in the Hebrew construction of the infinitive with the finite form of the same verb—which is readily recognizable in the Septuagint—and in certain particles (adverbs, prepositions, etc. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the ) some deep reference to philosophical and ethical doctrines, Akiba perceived in them indications of many important ceremonial laws, legal statutes, and ethical teachings (compare D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung, pp. For the American documentary filmmaker see David Hoffman David Zvi Hoffmann ( November 24, 1843 &ndash 1921 ( Hebrew 5-12, and H. Grätz, Gesch. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish iv. 427).

He thus gave the Jewish mind not only a new field for its own employment, but, convinced both of the unchangeableness of Holy Scripture and of the necessity for development in Judaism, he succeeded in reconciling these two apparently hopeless opposites by means of his remarkable method. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is The following two illustrations will serve to make this clear:

• The high conception of woman's dignity, which Akiba shared in common with most other Pharisees, induced him to abolish the Oriental custom that banished women at certain periods from all social intercourse. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" He succeeded, moreover, in fully justifying his interpretation of those Scriptural passages upon which this ostracism had been founded by the older expounders of the Torah (Sifra, Meẓora, end, and Shab. 64b). Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud
• The Biblical legislation in Ex. xxi. Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. 7 could not be reconciled by Akiba with his view of Jewish ethics: for him a "Jewish slave" is a contradiction in terms, for every Jew is to be regarded as a prince (B. M. 113b). Bava Metzia ( Talmudic Aramaic: בבא מציעא "The Middle Gate" is the second of the three Talmudic Tractates in the order of Nezikin Akiba therefore teaches, in opposition to the old Halakah, that the sale of a daughter under age by her father conveys to her purchaser no legal title to marriage with her, but, on the contrary, carries with it the duty to keep the female slave until she is of age, and then to marry her (Mek., Mishpaṭim, 3). Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. Mishpatim (משפטים — Hebrew for “laws” is the eighteenth Weekly Torah portion ( parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah How Akiba endeavors to substantiate this from the Hebrew text is shown by A. Geiger (Urschrift, p. Abraham Geiger (1810&ndash1874 was a German Rabbi and scholar who led in the foundation of Reform Judaism, seeking to remove all nationalistic elements 187).

How little he cared for the letter of the Law whenever he conceives it to be antagonistic to the spirit of Judaism, is shown by his attitude toward the Samaritans. He considered friendly intercourse with these semi-Jews as desirable on political as well as on religious grounds, and he permitted—in opposition to tradition—not only eating their bread (Sheb. viii. This article is about the Talmudic book of Shevu'ot See Shavuot for the Jewish holiday 10) but also eventual intermarriage (ḳid. 75b). Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women This is quite remarkable, seeing that in matrimonial legislation he went so far as to declare every forbidden union as absolutely void (Yeb. 92a) and the offspring as illegitimate (ḳid. 68a). Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women For similar reasons Akiba comes near abolishing the Biblical ordinance of Kilaim; nearly every chapter in the treatise of that name contains a mitigation by Akiba.

Love for the Holy Land, which he as a genuine nationalist frequently and warmly expressed (see Ab. R. N. xxvi. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably ), was so powerful with him that he would have exempted agriculture from much of the rigor of the Law. These examples will suffice to justify the opinion that Akiba was the man to whom Judaism owes preeminently its activity and its capacity for development.

Religious Philosophy

Goethe's saying, that "in self-restraint is the master shown," is contradicted by Akiba, who, though diametrically opposed to all philosophical speculation, is nevertheless the only tanna to whom we can attribute something like a religious philosophy. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer word /š n/ and /t n/ --> A tannaitic tradition (Ḥag. 14b; Tosef., Ḥag. Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. ii. 3) mentions that of the four who entered paradise, Akiba was the only one that returned unscathed. This serves at least to show how strong in later ages was the recollection of Akiba's philosophical speculation (see Elisha b. Abuya). Elisha ben Abuyah (אלישע בן אבויה (spelled variously including Elisha ben Avuya) was a Rabbi and Jewish religious authority born in Jerusalem

Akiba's utterances (Abot, iii. Pirkei Avot / Ovos (Ethics of the Fathers פרקי אבות is a tractate of the Mishna composed of ethical maxims of the Rabbis of the Mishnaic period 14, 15) may serve to present the essence of his religious conviction. They run:

• How favored is man, for he was created after an image; as Scripture says, "for in an image, Elohim made man" (Gen. ix. 6).
• Everything is foreseen; but freedom [of will] is given to every man.
• The world is governed by mercy. . . but the divine decision is made by the preponderance of the good or bad in one's actions.

Akiba's anthropology is based upon the principle that man was created בצלם, that is, not in the image of God—which would be בצלם אלהים—but after an image, after a primordial type; or, philosophically speaking, after an Idea—what Philo calls in agreement with judean theology, "the first heavenly man" (see Adam ḳadmon). Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria In the religious writings of Kabbalah, Adam Kadmon is a phrase meaning "Primordial Man" or "Primal Man" comparable to the Anthropos of Gnosticism Strict monotheist that Akiba was, he protested against any comparison of God with the angels, and declared the traditional interpretation of כאחד ממנו (Gen. iii. 22) as meaning "like one of us" to be arrant blasphemy (Mek., Beshallaḥ, 6). Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. Beshalach, Beshallach, or Beshalah (בשלח — Hebrew for “when let go” the second word and first distinctive word in the parshah is the sixteenth It is quite instructive to read how a contemporary of Akiba, Justin Martyr, calls the old interpretation—thus objected to by Akiba—a "Jewish heretical one" (Dial. Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius cum Tryph. lxii. ). In his earnest endeavors to insist as strongly as possible upon the incomparable nature of God, Akiba indeed lowers the angels somewhat to the realms of mortals, and, alluding to Ps. lxxviii. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included 25, maintains that manna is the actual food of the angels (Yoma, 75b). For the brush-footed butterfly Genus, see Yoma (butterfly. Yoma ( Hebrew: יומא lit This view of Akiba's, in spite of the energetic protests of his colleague Rabbi Ishmael, became the one generally accepted by his contemporaries, as Justin Martyr, l. Ishmael ben Elisha (90-135 CE commonly known as Rabbi Ishmael, Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל) was a Tanna of the first and second c. , lvii. , indicates.

Freedom of Will

Against the Judæo-Gnostic doctrine (Recognit. iii. 30; Sifre, Num. 103; Sifra, Wayikra, 2), which teaches that angels—who are spiritual beings—and also that the departed pious, who are bereft of their flesh, can see God, the words of Akiba, in Sifra, l. Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. c. , must be noticed. He insists that not even the angels can see God's glory; for he interprets the expression in Ex. xxxiii. Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. 20, "no man can see me and live" (וחי), as if it read "no man or any living immortal can see me. "

Akiba insists emphatically that next to the transcendental nature of God, there is no limitation in the freedom of the human will. This insistence is in opposition to the Christian doctrine of the sinfulness and depravity of man, and apparently controverts his view of divine predestination. The inclination towards evil and the inclination towards good can be chosen from equally, and men are not in any way naturally inclined towards evil.

He cautions against those who find excuse for their sins in a supposed innate depravity (ḳid. 81a). Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women But Akiba's opposition to this genetically Jewish doctrine is probably directed mainly against its Christian correlative, the doctrine of the grace of God contingent upon faith in Christ, and baptism. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Referring to this, Akiba says, "Happy are ye, O Israelites, that ye purify yourselves through your heavenly Father, as it is said (Jer. xvii. The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah ( יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirməyāhū in Hebrew) is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism 13, Heb. ), 'Israel's hope is God'" (Mishnah Yoma, end). The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism For the brush-footed butterfly Genus, see Yoma (butterfly. Yoma ( Hebrew: יומא lit This is a play on the Hebrew word מקוה ("hope" and "bath"). In opposition to the Christian insistence on God's love, Akiba upholds God's retributive justice elevated above all chance or arbitrariness (Mekilta, Beshallaḥ, 6). Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. Beshalach, Beshallach, or Beshalah (בשלח — Hebrew for “when let go” the second word and first distinctive word in the parshah is the sixteenth

God's Two Attributes

But he is far from representing justice as the only attribute of God: in agreement with the ancient Palestinian theology of the מדת הדין ("the attribute of justice") and מדת הרחמים ("the attribute of mercy") (Gen. R. xii. Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period , end; the χαριστική and κολαστική of Philo, Quis Rer. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Div. Heres, 34 Mangey, i. 496), he teaches that God combines goodness and mercy with strict justice (Ḥag. 14a). Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud The idea of justice, however, so strongly dominates Akiba's system that he will not allow God's grace and kindness to be understood as arbitrary. Hence his maxim, referred to above, "God rules the world in mercy, but according to the preponderance of good or bad in human acts. "

Eschatology and Ethics

As to the question concerning the frequent sufferings of the pious and the prosperity of the wicked —truly a burning one in Akiba's time—this is answered by the explanation that the pious are punished in this life for their few sins, in order that in the next they may receive only reward; while the wicked obtain in this world all the recompense for the little good they have done, and in the next world will receive only punishment for their misdeeds (Gen. R. xxxiii. Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period ; PesiḲ. ed. S. Buber, ix. Solomon (or Salomon Buber (1827&ndash1906 was a Jewish Galician scholar and editor of Hebrew works 73a). Consistent as Akiba always was, his ethics and his views of justice were only the strict consequences of his philosophical system. Justice as an attribute of God must also be exemplary for man. "No mercy in [civil] justice!" is his basic principle in the doctrine concerning law (Ket. ix. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women 3), and he does not conceal his opinion that the action of the Jews in taking the spoil of the Egyptians is to be condemned (Gen. R. xxviii. Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period 7).

From his views as to the relation between God and man he deduces the inference that he who sheds the blood of a fellow man is to be considered as committing the crime against the divine archetype (דמות) of man (Gen. R. xxxiv. Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period 14). He therefore recognizes as the chief and greatest principle of Judaism the command, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" (Lev. xix. Leviticus (from Greek Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites " 18; Sifra, ḳedoshim, iv. Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. This page is about Kedoshim a parshah in the yearly Torah cycle ). He does not, indeed, maintain thereby that the execution of this command is equivalent to the performance of the whole Law; and in one of his polemic interpretations of Scripture he protests strongly against a contrary opinion allegedly held by Christians, according to which Judaism is "simply morality" (Mek., Shirah, 3, 44a, ed. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. I.H. Weiss). Isaac Hirsch Weiss ( February 9, 1815 – June 1, 1905) ( Hebrew: יצחק הירש ווייס) was an Austrian For, in spite of his philosophy, Akiba was an extremely strict and national Jew.

The Messianic Age

His doctrine concerning the Jewish Messiah was a realistic one and he initially believed Bar Kokba to be the Messiah. Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible Simon bar Kokhba ( Hebrew: שמעון בר כוכבא, also transliterated as Bar Kokhva or Bar Kochba) was the Jewish leader who led what He accordingly limited the Messianic age to forty years, as being within the scope of a man's life — similar to the reigns of David and Solomon—against the usual conception of a millennium (Midr. Teh. xc. David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" Midrash Tehillim ( Hebrew: מדרש תהלים) or Midrash to Psalms is a Haggadic midrash known since the 11th century when it was quoted by 15).

Legends

A man like Akiba would naturally be the subject of many legends. The following examples indicate in what light the personality of this great teacher appeared to later generations.

His innovative method

"When Moses ascended into heaven, he saw God occupied in making little crowns for the letters of the Torah. Upon his inquiry as to what these might be for, he received the answer, "There will come a man, named Akiba ben Joseph, who will deduce Halakot from every little curve and crown of the letters of the Law. " Moses' request to be allowed to see this man was granted; but he became much dismayed as he listened to Akiba's teaching; for he could not understand it" (Men. 29b). This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This story gives in naive style a picture of Akiba's activity as the father of Talmudical Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora

His transformation

The Aggadah explains how Akiba, in the prime of life, commenced his rabbinical studies. Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical Legendary allusion to this change in Akiba's life is made in two slightly varying forms, of which the following is probably the older:

Akiba, noticing a stone at a well that had been hollowed out by drippings from the buckets, said: "If these drippings can, by continuous action, penetrate this solid stone, how much more can the persistent word of God penetrate the pliant, fleshly human heart, if that word but be presented with patient insistency" (Ab. R. N. ed. Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably S. Schechter, vi. Solomon Schechter שניאור זלמן שכטר ( December 7, 1847 - November 19[[ 915]] was a Moldavian born Romanian and English 28).

His martydom

The most common version of Akiva's death is that the Roman government ordered him to stop teaching Torah, on pain of death, and that he refused. Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah The Roman judge who condemned him sentenced him to a punishment that was unusually severe even by Roman standards: flaying alive. Flaying is the removal of Skin from the Body. Generally an attempt is made to keep the removed portion of skin intact

There is some disagreement about the extent of Akiva's involvement in the Bar Kochba rebellion. Simon bar Kokhba ( Hebrew: שמעון בר כוכבא, also transliterated as Bar Kokhva or Bar Kochba) was the Jewish leader who led what (Source: Encyclopedia Britannica online) Participation in a rebellion would be a more serious threat to Roman rule than merely teaching a deviant religion—even one that questions the validity of worshipping the Emperor as a god.

Akiba's martyrdom—which is an important historical event—gave origin to many legends. The following account of his martyrdom is on a high plane and contains a proper appreciation of his principles: When Rufus—"Tyrannus Rufus," as he is called in Jewish sources—who was the pliant tool of Hadrian's vengeance, condemned the venerable Akiba to the hand of the executioner, it was just the time to recite the Shema. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Shema Yisrael (or Sh'ma Yisroel or just Shema) ( Hebrew: שמע ישראל "Hear Israel" are the first two words of a section of Full of devotion, Akiba recited his prayers calmly, though suffering agonies; and when Rufus asked him whether he was a sorcerer, since he felt no pain, Akiba replied, "I am no sorcerer; but I rejoice at the opportunity now given to me to love my God 'with all my life,' seeing that I have hitherto been able to love Him only 'with all my means' and 'with all my might,'" and with the word "One!" he expired (Yer. Ber. ix. The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection See also Anales de Química Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France 14b, and somewhat modified in Bab. 61b). The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history

The version in the Babylonian Talmud (Berachot 61b) tells it as a response of Akiva to his students, who asked him how even now—as he is being tortured—he could yet offer prayers to God. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history He says to them, "All my life I was worried about the verse, 'with all your soul,' (and the sages expounded this to signify), even if He takes away your soul. And I said to myself, when will I ever be able to fulfill this command? And now that I am finally able to fulfill it, I should not? Then he extended the final word Echad ("One") until his life expired with that word. A heavenly voice went out and announced: "Blessed are you, Rabbi Akiva, that your life expired with "Echad". Pure monotheism was for Akiba the essence of Judaism: he lived, worked, and died for it.

Contrary to the vision (Men. 29b), which sees Akiba's body destined to be exposed for sale in the butcher's shop, legend tells how Elijah, accompanied by Akiba's faithful servant Joshua, entered unperceived the prison where the body lay. This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name Elijah or Elias ( was a Prophet in Israel in the 9th century BC Priest though he was, Elijah took up the corpse—for the dead body of such a saint could not defile—and, escorted by many bands of angels, bore the body by night to Cæsarea. Kayseri ( Ottoman Turkish:قیصریه Greek: Καισάρεια / Kaisareia: Latin: Caesarea Mazaca Zazaish The night, however, was as bright as the finest summer's day. When they arrived there, Elijah and Joshua entered a cavern which contained a bed, table, chair, and lamp, and deposited Akiba's body there. No sooner had they left it than the cavern closed of its own accord, so that no man has found it since (Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash, vi. Jellinek is a surname and may refer to Adolf Jellinek ( Adolph Jellinek) (1821 Czech - 1893 an Austrian rabbi and scholar 27, 28; ii. 67, 68; Braunschweiger, Lehrer der Mischnah, 192-206).

His students

Akiva taught thousands of students: on one occasion, twenty-four thousand students of his died in a plague. ^[5] His five main, last remaining students were Judah bar Ilai, Rabbi Meir, Rabbi Nehemiah, Jose ben Halafta and Shimon bar Yochai. Rabbi Judah ben Ilai, also known as Rabbi Judah, was a Tanna (a sage recorded in the Mishna) who lived in the 2nd Century. Rabbi Meir or Reb Meir Baal Haneis (or Hanes (lit Rabbi Meir Master of the Miracle) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishna. Rabbi Nehemiah was a Hebrew Priest, Circa AD 150 (during the Tannaim era Rabbi Jose ben Halafta or Yose ben Halafta ( Hebrew: רבי יוסי בן חלפתא) was a Tanna of the fourth generation (2nd century CE Shimon bar Yohai, ( Aramaic: רבן שמעון בר יוחאי Shimon son of Yohai, Simon son of Yohai or Rashbi (רשב"י pronounced

His wealth and influence

Akiba's success as a teacher put an end to his poverty; for the wealthy father-in-law now rejoiced to acknowledge a son-in-law so distinguished as Akiba. There were, however, other circumstances which made a wealthy man of the former shepherd lad.

It appears that Akiba, authorized by certain rabbis, borrowed a large sum of money from a prominent heathen woman—a matrona, says the legend. As bondsmen for the loan, Akiba named God and the sea, on the shore of which the matrona's house stood. Akiba, being sick, could not return the money at the time appointed; but his "bondsmen" did not leave him in the lurch. An imperial princess suddenly became insane, in which condition she threw a chest containing imperial treasures into the sea. It was cast upon the shore close to the house of Akiba's creditor, so that when the matrona went to the shore to demand of the sea the amount she had lent Akiba, the ebbing tide left boundless riches at her feet. Later, when Akiba arrived to discharge his indebtedness, the matrona not only refused to accept the money, but insisted upon Akiba's receiving a large share of what the sea had brought to her (Commentaries to Ned. l. Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women c. ).

The Talmud also enumerates six occasions in which Akiva gained his wealth (Nedarim, 50a-b). Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Akiba's many journeys brought numerous adventures, some of which are embellished by legend. Thus in Ethiopia he was once called upon to decide between the swarthy king and the king's wife; the latter having been accused of infidelity because she had borne her lord a white child. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Akiba ascertained that the royal chamber was adorned with white marble statuary, and, basing his decision upon a well known physiological theory, he exonerated the queen from suspicion (Num. R. ix. Numbers Rabbah (or Bamidbar Rabbah in Hebrew) is a religious text holy to classical Judaism. 34). It is related that during his stay in Rome Akiba became intimately acquainted with the Jewish proselyte ḳeṭia' bar Shalom, a very influential Roman—according to some scholars identical with Flavius Clemens, Domitian's nephew, who, before his execution for pleading the cause of the Jews, bequeathed to Akiba all his possessions (Ab. Zarah, 10b). Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Titus Flavius Clemens was a great-nephew of the Roman Emperor Vespasian. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Avodah Zarah ( Hebrew: "foreign worship" meaning " Idolatry " is the name of a Tractate in the Talmud, located

Another Roman, concerning whose relations with Akiba legend has much to tell, was Tinnius Rufus, called in the Talmud "Tyrannus" Rufus. One day Rufus asked: "Which is the more beautiful—God's work or man's?" "Undoubtedly man's work is the better," was Akiba's reply; "for while nature at God's command supplies us only with the raw material, human skill enables us to elaborate the same according to the requirements of art and good taste. " Rufus had hoped to drive Akiba into a corner by his strange question; for he expected quite a different answer from the sage, and intended to compel Akiba to admit the wickedness of circumcision. He then put the question, "Why has God not made man just as He wanted him to be?" "For the very reason," was Akiba's ready answer, "that the duty of man is to perfect himself" (Tan., Tazri'a, 5, ed. Midrash Tanhuma ( Hebrew: מדרש תנחומא) is the name given to three different collections of Pentateuch Haggadot; two are extant while Tazria, Thazria, Thazri’a, Sazria, or Ki Tazria’ (תזריע — Hebrew for "she conceives” the 13th word and the first S. Buber 7). Solomon (or Salomon Buber (1827&ndash1906 was a Jewish Galician scholar and editor of Hebrew works

His relationship with his wife

Akiva was the shepherd of a rich man nicknamed Kalba Savua because anyone who entered his house hungry like a dog (kalba) went out satiated (savua) (a reference to his hospitality toward guests). Kalba Savua's daughter, whose name was Rachel, noticed his modesty and good nature. She saw that he had a great mind, and that if he would put his mind to The Almighty's Divine Torah, he would flourish into a great teacher in Israel. She spoke with Akiva about G-d and the role of the Jewish people, and it sparked his interest. One day Akiva came to Rachel by a river, and asked her why the Jewish people, if they were G-d's Chosen people, had to suffer so much. She replied,

"The greater, the higher a man's task is, the more he must endure, the more he must fight and suffer. An ordinary simple man who doesn't bother about anything usually lives a quiet an undisturbed life. The man who wants to do something, who is concerned with the general welfare has troubles and worries. When G-d elevated Israel and chose us from all the nations, He placed us in the midst of every conflict. Wherever something great is being fought for, Israel must be there. Few peoples rise above the others, to put their foot on the neck of the nations. The various generations come up, grow, flourish and disappear. Israel must play its part in all of them. Of course, that involves suffering and sorrow. Sometimes we are hurled down to earth, and the ploughs are drawn across our backs and we are marked by long furrows. But G-d has always raised us up again. He has never punished us as He has punished those who torment us. He has never doomed us to die like those nations who oppress us. If we must suffer more than other peoples, G-d has also given us the strength to bear our troubles; to endure. "

Rachel's words moved Akiva, and he told her that he could only dedicate himself to Torah if he had a wife like her by his side. She said that she would accept his "wooing" if he would devote himself to the study of G-d's law. He said he would, and they married in secret. Her father, hearing this, drove her out of his house and prohibited her by vow of having any share in his assets.

Rachel brought Akiva to Gamzu, a small place near Lod, to learn from the Torah sage Nochum of Gamzu. Lod (לוֹד اَلْلُدّْ al-Ludd; Greco-Latin Lydda) is a mixed Arab - Jewish city about 15 km southeast of Tel Aviv in Nahum of Gimzo ( Hebrew: נחום איש גמזו) was a Tanna of the 2nd generation (1st century He learned with him until he died, at which point he moved to Yavneh to study at the feet of ben Zakkai, as well as Gamliel II HaNasi (the Prince), and Yehoshua ben Chananya. Yavne (יַבְנֶה ياڨني or يبنة Yibnah; Iamnia traditional English spelling Jabneh or Jamnia) is a city in the Center District Yochanan ben Zakai (יוחנן בן זכאי c 30 BCE - 90 CE) was one of the Tannaim, an important Jewish sage in the era of the Second Temple Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel רבן גמליאל דיבנה was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as Nasi after the fall of the second temple which Joshua ben Hananiah ( Hebrew: יהושע בן חנניה d131CE was a leading tanna of the first half-century following the destruction of the Temple After 12 years, he returned to his home with twelve thousand disciples following him. He overheard a neighbor saying to his wife Rachel: "How long will you live as a widow while still married? Your husband has probably forgotten all about you!" She answered her: "If he would listen to me, he should go study another twelve years. " Hearing this, Rabbi Akiva said: "So I'm doing it with her approval!" and went and studied another twelve years.

When he came back this time, he had twenty-four thousand disciples with him. Hearing this, his wife was about to go out and greet him. Her female neighbors said to her: "Go borrow garments and dress yourself!" She replied: "A righteous man knows the spirit of his domestic beast" (Proverbs 12:10). The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh, and thus also one of the books of the Old Testament. When she reached him she prostrated herself and started kissing his feet. His servants started pushing her away. He said to them: "Let her be! What both I and you have is hers. "

Her father heard that a great man had arrived in town. He said: "Let me go to him, perhaps he may annul my vow. " Rabbi Akiva asked him: "Had you known that her husband would become a great man, would you have vowed?" Kalba Savua answered: "Why, if he even knew one chapter, even one Halakha!" Rabbi Akiva then said: "I am him. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law " He prostrated himself and kissed him on his feet, and gave him half his assets (Ketubot 62b-63a). A ketubah ( pl ketubot) is a Jewish Prenuptial agreement. It is considered an integral part of a traditional Jewish marriage.

His Favorite Maxim

This was not the only occasion on which Akiba was made to feel the truth of his favorite maxim ("Whatever God doeth He doeth for the best"). Once, being unable to find any sleeping accommodation in a certain city, he was compelled to pass the night outside its walls. Without a murmur he resigned himself to this hardship; and even when a lion devoured his ass, and a cat killed the cock whose crowing was to herald the dawn to him, and the wind extinguished his candle, the only remark he made was, "All that G-d does is for the good. " When morning dawned he learned how true his words were. A band of robbers had fallen upon the city and carried its inhabitants into captivity, but he had escaped because his abiding place had not been noticed in the darkness, and neither beast nor fowl had betrayed him (Ber. 60b). See also Anales de Química Bulletin des Sociétés Chimiques Belges Bulletin de la Société Chimique de France

Akiba and the Dead

A legend according to which the gates of the infernal regions opened for Akiba is analogous to the more familiar tale that he entered paradise and was allowed to leave it unscathed (Ḥag. Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud 14b). There exists the following tradition: Akiba once met a coal-black man carrying a heavy load of wood and running with the speed of a horse. Akiba stopped him and inquired: "My son, wherefore dost thou labor so hard? If thou art a slave and hast a harsh master, I will purchase thee of him. If it be out of poverty that thou doest thus, I will care for thy requirements. " "It is for neither of these," the man replied; "I am dead and am compelled because of my great sins to build my funeral pyre every day. In life I was a tax-gatherer and oppressed the poor. Let me go at once, lest the demon torture me for my delay. " "Is there no help for thee?" asked Akiba. "Almost none," replied the deceased; "for I understand that my sufferings will end only when I have a pious son. When I died, my wife was pregnant; but I have little hope that she will give my child proper training. "

Akiba inquired the man's name and that of his wife and her dwelling-place; and when, in the course of his travels, he reached the place, Akiba sought for information concerning the man's family. The neighbors very freely expressed their opinion that both the deceased and his wife deserved to inhabit the infernal regions for all time—the latter because she had not even initiated her child into the Abrahamic covenant. Covenant, meaning a solemn contract oath or bond is the customary word used to translate the Hebrew word berith ( ברית, Akiba, however, was not to be turned from his purpose; he sought the son of the tax-gatherer and labored long and assiduously in teaching him the word of God. After fasting 40 days, and praying to God to bless his efforts, he heard a heavenly voice (bat Ḳol) asking, "Wherefore givest thou thyself so much trouble concerning this one?" "Because he is just the kind to work for," was the prompt answer. Akiba persevered until his pupil was able to officiate as reader in the synagogue; and when there for the first time he recited the prayer, "Bless ye the Lord!" the father suddenly appeared to Akiba, and overwhelmed him with thanks for his deliverance from the pains of hell through the merit of his son (Kallah, ed. Kallah ( Hebrew: מסכת כלה) is the name of teachers' convention that was held twice a year in Babylonian Academies by the Jews then in captivity in Coronel, 4b, and see quotations from Tan. in Isaac Aboab's Menorat ha-Maor, i. Midrash Tanhuma ( Hebrew: מדרש תנחומא) is the name given to three different collections of Pentateuch Haggadot; two are extant while Isaac Aboab (fl 14th century was Jewish Talmudic scholar He is also know by the Pen name Menorat ha-Maor or Menoras HaMaor, 1, 2, § 1, ed. Jacob Raphael Fürstenthal, p. Jacob Raphael Fürstenthal (born in Glogau 1781 died at Breslau, February 16[[ 855]] was a German Jewish poet translator and Hebrew writer 82; also Maḥzor Vitry, p. Simhah ben Samuel of Vitry, (d 1105 ( Hebrew: שמחה בן שמואל מויטרי) was a French Talmudist of the 11th and 12th centuries pupil of 112). This legend has been somewhat elaborately treated in Yiddish under the title, Ein ganz neie Maase vun dem Tanna R. Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Akiba, Lemberg, 1893 (compare Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuṭṭa, xvii. Tanna Devei Eliyahu ( Hebrew: תנא דבי אליהו; alternate Transliterations include Tana D'vei Eliyahu and Tana D'vei Eliahu , where Johanan ben Zakkai's name is given in place of Akiba). Yochanan ben Zakai (יוחנן בן זכאי c 30 BCE - 90 CE) was one of the Tannaim, an important Jewish sage in the era of the Second Temple

Rabbis of the Mishnah v • d • e

Hillel   Shammai           Teacher → Student                                                                             Gamaliel the Elder               Johanan b. Zakai                 Father → Son                                                                                 R. Gamaliel   Jose the Galilean   Eliezer b. Hyrcanus   Joshua b. Hananiah   Eleazar b. Arach   Eleazar b. Azariah                                                                         Elisha b. Abuyah       Akiva   Ishmael b. Elisha   Tarfon                                                                                                 Meir   Judah b. Ilai   Jose b. Halafta   Shimon b. Yohai                                                                                             Judah HaNasi   Hiyya   Oshiah

References

• This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain. word /š n/ and /t n/ --> The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Hillel (הלל (born Babylon traditionally c110BCE-10CE in Jerusalem) was a famous Jewish religious leader one of the most important figures in Jewish Shammai (50 BCE&ndash30 CE Hebrew: שמאי was a Jewish scholar of the 1st century and an important figure in Judaism 's core work of Rabbinic literature This article is about Gamaliel the Elder For other individuals and uses see Gamaliel (disambiguation Gamaliel the Elder (gəmā'lēəl or Yochanan ben Zakai (יוחנן בן זכאי c 30 BCE - 90 CE) was one of the Tannaim, an important Jewish sage in the era of the Second Temple Rabban Gamaliel II (also spelled Gamliel רבן גמליאל דיבנה was the first person to lead the Sanhedrin as Nasi after the fall of the second temple which Jose the Galilean ( Hebrew: יוסי הגלילי Yose ha-Gelili) was a Jew who lived in the first and second centuries of the common Eliezer ben Hurcanus (אליעזר בן הורקנוס was one of the most prominent Tannaim of the 1st and 2nd centuries disciple of R Joshua ben Hananiah ( Hebrew: יהושע בן חנניה d131CE was a leading tanna of the first half-century following the destruction of the Temple Eleazar ben Arach was one of the Tannaim of the second generation ( first century CE) Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah ( Hebrew: רבי אלעזר בן עזריה) was a Mishnaic scholar of the second generation (1st century C Elisha ben Abuyah (אלישע בן אבויה (spelled variously including Elisha ben Avuya) was a Rabbi and Jewish religious authority born in Jerusalem Ishmael ben Elisha (90-135 CE commonly known as Rabbi Ishmael, Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל) was a Tanna of the first and second Rabbi Tarfon or Tarphon, ( Hebrew: רבי טרפון, from the Greek Tryphon) a member of the third generation of the Mishnah Rabbi Meir or Reb Meir Baal Haneis (or Hanes (lit Rabbi Meir Master of the Miracle) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishna. Rabbi Judah ben Ilai, also known as Rabbi Judah, was a Tanna (a sage recorded in the Mishna) who lived in the 2nd Century. Rabbi Jose ben Halafta or Yose ben Halafta ( Hebrew: רבי יוסי בן חלפתא) was a Tanna of the fourth generation (2nd century CE Shimon bar Yohai, ( Aramaic: רבן שמעון בר יוחאי Shimon son of Yohai, Simon son of Yohai or Rashbi (רשב"י pronounced Hoshaiah Rabbah or Hoshayya Rabbah (also "Roba" "Berabbi" Hebrew: אושעיא בריבי) was Palestinian amora of the The Jewish Encyclopedia was an Encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone . The JE cites the following sources:
  • Z. Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, pp. Zecharias Frankel ( 30 September, 1801 – 13 February 1875) was a Bohemian-German Rabbi and a historian who studied the historical development 111-123;
  • J. Brüll, Mebo ha-Mishnah, pp. 116-122;
  • Weiss, Dor, ii. Isaac Hirsch Weiss ( February 9, 1815 – June 1, 1905) ( Hebrew: יצחק הירש ווייס) was an Austrian 107-118;
  • H. Oppenheim, in Bet Talmud, ii. 237-246, 269-274;
  • Isaac Gastfreund, Biographie des R. Isaac Gastfreund (born about 1845 died in Vienna after 1880 was a Galician rabbinical scholar Akiba, Lemberg, 1871;
  • J. S. Bloch, in Mimizraḥ u-Mima'Arab, 1894, pp. 47-54;
  • Heinrich Grätz, Gesch. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish d. Juden, iv. (see index);
  • Ewald, Geschichte der Volkes Israel, vii. 367 et seq. ;
  • Joseph Derenbourg, Essai, pp. Joseph Derenbourg, or Joseph Naftali Derenburg ( 21 August 1811 - 29 July 1895) was a Franco-German Orientalist 329-331, 395 et seq. , 418 et seq. ;
  • Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 32-43;
  • W. Bacher, Ag. Wilhelm Bacher ( January 12, 1850 –1913 was a Hungarian scholar Orientalist, and linguist, born in Liptó-Szent-Miklós Tan. i. 271-348;
  • Isaak Markus Jost, Gesch. Isaak Marcus (Markus Jost ( February 22, 1793, Bernburg &ndash November 22, 1860, Frankfurt (Main) was a Jewish des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, ii. 59 et seq. ;
  • Landau, in Monatsschrift, 1854, pp. 45-51, 81-93, 130-148;
  • Dünner, ibid. 1871, pp. 451-454;
  • Neubürger, ibid. 1873, pp. 385-397, 433-445, 529-536;
  • D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die Halachischen Midraschim, pp. For the American documentary filmmaker see David Hoffman David Zvi Hoffmann ( November 24, 1843 &ndash 1921 ( Hebrew 5-12;
  • H. Grätz, Gnosticismus, pp. Heinrich Graetz ( October 31, 1817 - September 7, 1891) was amongst the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish 83-120;
  • F. Rosenthal, Vier Apokryph. Bücher . . . R. Akiba's, especially pp. 95-103, 124-131;
  • S. Funk, Akiba (Jena Dissertation), 1896;
  • M. Poper, PirḲe R. Akiba, Vienna, 1808;
  • M. Lehmann, Akiba, Historische Erzählung, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1880;
  • J. Wittkind, Ḥuṭ ha-Meshulash, Wilna, 1877;
  • Braunschweiger, Die Lehrer der Mischnah, pp. 92-110.

Notes

See also

• Ten Martyrs
• Mishnah
• Midrash
• Talmud

External links

• A biography of Rabbi Akiva
• OU.org: Rabbi Akiva, Master of Teshuvah
• Photos of Rabbi Akiva's tomb in Tiberias
• A collection of articles on Rabbi Akiva's teaching from Chabad Knowledge Base
• Jewish Encyclopedia article on Akiba, by Louis Ginzberg. The Ten Martyrs ( Aseret Harugei Malchut עשרת הרוגי מלכות refers to a group of ten Rabbis living during the era of the Mishnah who The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Rabbi Louis Ginzberg was one of the outstanding Talmudists of the twentieth century

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