Air safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, as well as through education and training. An aviation accident is defined in the International Civil Aviation Organization Annex 13 It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. Air travel is a form of Travel using an Airplane. The comfort experienced when traveling by air depends on several factors starting with the airport the

The nervous passenger may have phobias concerning the journey ahead, such as fear of heights, fear of enclosed spaces, surrender of control and fear for their safety. Phobias Phobias (in the clinical meaning of the term are the most common form of Anxiety disorders An American study by the National Institute of Mental Health

Contents 1 Institutions 1.1 Certification 1.2 United States 2 Navigation aids and instrument flight 3 Air safety topics 3.1 Lightning 3.2 Ice and snow 3.3 Engine failure 3.4 Metal fatigue 3.5 Delamination 3.6 Stalling 3.7 Fire 3.8 Bird strike 3.9 Ground damage 3.10 Volcanic ash 3.11 Human factors 3.11.1 Controlled flight into terrain 3.11.2 Terrorism 3.12 Airport design 3.13 Infection 3.14 Emergency airplane evacuations 4 Accidents and incidents 4.1 Investigators 5 Regulation 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links

Institutions

Certification

In most countries, civil aircraft have to be certified by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) to be allowed to fly. The Controlled Impact Demonstration (or more colloquially the Crash In the Desert) was a joint project between NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration The major aviation authorities worldwide are the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (which provides regulatory advice to the European Union and to a degree supplanted the regulatory bodies of member countries) and the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) which advises the CAAs that are members of the European Civil Aviation Conference). Aviation refers to activities involving man-made flying devices ( Aircraft) including the people organizations and regulatory bodies involved with them The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA) is an agency of the United States Department of Transportation with authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA is an agency of the European Union (EU with offices in Cologne, Germany, which has been given specific regulatory The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The Joint Aviation Authorities, or JAA, is an associated body of the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC representing the Civil aviation regulatory The European Civil Aviation Conference ( ECAC) or Conférence Européenne de l'Aviation Civile ( CEAC) is an International organization with close FAA, EASA and JAA collaborate on many issues, especially in order to provide streamlined procedure and avoid conflicting or duplicate requirements. FAA and EASA are, in particular, primarily responsible for the certification of the airliners from the two major manufacturers, Boeing and Airbus. The Boeing Company is a major Aerospace and defense corporation originally founded by William E Airbus SAS (ˈɛərbʌs in English, Airbus2ogg|/ɛʁbys/]] in French, and /ˈɛːɐbʊs/ in German) is an aircraft manufacturing

Aircraft are certified against standards set out in the code for each CAA. Those codes are very similar and differ primarily in equipment and environmental standards. Regulations on maintenance, repair and operation provide further direction to the owners of the aircraft so that the aircraft continues to meet design standards.

United States

During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate civil aviation. Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying representing all non- Military aviation, both private and commercial Of particular significance was the Air Commerce Act 1926, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. Governments have played an important part in shaping air transportation The United States Department of Commerce is the Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with promoting Economic growth

Despite this, in 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for every 1,000,000 miles flown. Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal incidents per year.

The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, and, since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown (e. g. , 100 people flying a plane for 1000 miles counts as 100,000 person-miles, making it comparable with methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers, such as one person driving a car for 100,000 miles, which is also 100,000 person-miles), making it one of the safest modes of transport.

A disproportionate number of all U. S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather conditions and the high number of small aircraft. Between 1990-2006 there were 1441 commuter and air taxi crashes in the U. S. of which 373 (26%) were fatal, resulting in 1063 deaths (142 occupational pilot deaths). Alaska accounted for 513 (36%) of the total U. S. crashes. ^[1]

Another aspect of safety is protection from attack. The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added only about 2 deaths per 2,000,000,000 person-miles. Unfortunately, only 2 months later, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in Queens, NY, killing 256 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into the Belle Harbor neighborhood of Queens; a borough of New York City in New York, United The City of New York Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per 1,000,000,000 person-miles), may be relatively safe compared to some other forms of transport.

Safety improvements have resulted from improved aircraft design, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. Aeronautics (from Greek aero which means air or sky and nautis which means sailor i

It is often reported that air travel is the safest in terms of deaths per passenger mile. The National Transportation Safety Board (2006) reports 1. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB is an independent U 3 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by car, and 1. 7 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by air. ^[2] These are not passenger miles. If an airplane has 100 passengers, then the passenger miles are 100 times higher, making the risk 100 times lower. The number of deaths per passenger mile on commercial airlines between 1995 and 2000 is about 3 deaths per 10 billion passenger miles. ^[3]

Lifetime odds of dying from an aircraft crash are 1 in 5552, compared to 1 in 84 for motor vehicle accidents. ^[4]

Navigation aids and instrument flight

One of the first navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the late 1920s) was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor weather or after dark. The principles of air navigation are the same for all Aircraft, big or Small. The Precision Approach Path Indicator was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI is a light system positioned beside the Runway that consists of two three or four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO) an agency of the United Nations, codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation

In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight. General James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle USAF (14 December 1896 &ndash 27 September 1993 was an American Aviation pioneer Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircraft's attitude airspeed and altitude

With the spread of radio technology, several experimental radio based navigation aids were developed from the late 1920s onwards. Radio is the transmission of signals by Modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible Light. Radio navigation or radionavigation is the application of Radio frequencies to determining a position on the Earth. These were most successfully used in conjunction with instruments in the cockpit in the form of Instrument landing systems (ILS), first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh in 1938. Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircraft's attitude airspeed and altitude A cockpit is the area usually near the front of an Aircraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft The Instrument Landing System (ILS is a ground-based Instrument approach system that provides precision guidance to an Aircraft approaching a Runway A winter storm is an event in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold Temperatures such as Snow or A form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949.

Following the development of radar in World War II, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of Ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, joined in 1948 by distance measuring equipment (DME), and in the 1950s by airport surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control. Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In Aviation a ground-controlled approach (GCA is a type of service provided by air-traffic controllers whereby they guide aircraft to a safe landing in adverse weather conditions Distance Measuring Equipment (DME is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive An airport surveillance radar (ASR is a Radar system used at Airports to detect and display the position of Aircraft in the terminal area Air traffic control ( ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct Aircraft on the ground and in the air VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) became the predominate means of route navigation during the 1960s superseding the Non-directional beacon (NDB). This article is about the radio navigation aid see VOR for other uses A Non-directional beacon ( NDB) is a Radio transmitter at a known location used as an aviation or marine Navigational aid The ground based VOR stations were often co-located with DME, so that pilots could know both their radials in degrees with respect to north to, and their slant range distance to, that beacon. ^[5]

All of the ground-based navigation aids are being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite. Basic concept of GPS operation A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the constellation of GPS Satellites high above the Earth With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), GPS navigation has become accurate enough for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. WAAS Objectives Accuracy The WAAS specification requires it to provide a position accuracy of 7 However, since the GPS constellation is a single-point of failure that can be switched off by the U.S. military in time of crisis, onboard Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. The United States Armed Forces are the overall unified military forces of the United States An Inertial Navigation System (INS is a Navigation aid that uses a Computer and motion sensors to continuously track the position orientation and Velocity

Air safety topics

Lightning

Boeing studies have shown that airliners are struck by lightning on average of twice per year. Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of Electricity, which typically occurs during Thunderstorms and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or While the "flash and bang" is startling to the passengers and crew, aircraft are able to withstand normal lightning strikes.

The dangers of more powerful positive lightning were not understood until the destruction of a glider in 1999. Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of Electricity, which typically occurs during Thunderstorms and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or Terminology A "glider" is an unpowered Aircraft. The most common types of glider are today used for sporting purposes ^[6] It has since been suggested that positive lightning may have caused the crash of Pan Am Flight 214 in 1963. Pan Am Flight 214, a Boeing 707-121 registered as, was a domestic scheduled passenger flight from Baltimore to Philadelphia, which crashed on At that time aircraft were not designed to withstand such strikes, since their existence was unknown at the time standards were set.

The effects of normal lightning on traditional metal-covered aircraft are well understood and serious damage from a lightning strike on an airplane is rare. However, as more and more aircraft, like the upcoming Boeing 787, whose whole exterior is made of non-conducting composite materials take to the skies, additional design effort and testing must be made before certification authorities will permit these aircraft in commercial service. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Composite materials (or composites for short are engineered Materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical

Ice and snow

Snowy and icy conditions are frequent contributors to airline accidents. "Snowfall" redirects here For other uses see Snow (disambiguation or Snowfall (disambiguation. The December 8, 2005 accident where Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 slid off the end of the runway in heavy snow conditions is just one of many examples. Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Southwest Airlines Flight 1248 (WN1248 SWA1248 was a scheduled passenger flight from Baltimore-Washington International Airport to Chicago Midway International Airport A runway ( RWY) is a strip of land on an Airport, on which Aircraft can take off and land. Just as on a road, ice and snow buildup can make braking and steering difficult or impossible. A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia

The icing of wings is another problem and measures have been developed to combat it. Atmospheric icing occurs when Water droplets in the air freeze on objects they contact Even a small amount of ice or coarse frost can greatly decrease the ability of a wing to develop lift. Frost is the solid deposition of Water vapor from saturated air In the context of a Fluid flow relative to a body the lift force is the component of the Aerodynamic force that is Perpendicular to the flow This could prevent an aircraft from taking off. If ice builds up during flight the result can be catastrophic as evidenced by the crash of American Eagle Flight 4184 (an ATR 72 aircraft) near Roselawn, Indiana on October 31, 1994, killing 68, or Air Florida Flight 90. American Eagle Airlines Inc is a regional Airline based in Fort Worth, Texas, United States which began as an afflilation of American Eagle Flight 4184 was a Regional airline flight that crashed after flying into known Icing conditions on October 31, 1994 WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Roselawn is a Census-designated place (CDP in Lincoln Township, Newton County, Indiana, United States. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Air Florida Flight 90 was an Air Florida Flight of a Boeing 737-222 Airliner that crashed into the 14th Street Bridge across ^[7]

Airlines and airports ensure that aircraft are properly de-iced before takeoff whenever the weather threatens to create icing conditions. De-icing is the process of removing Ice from a Surface. Anti-icing is the process of Preventing ice from forming on a surface Takeoff is the phase of Flight in which an Aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground ( Taxiing) to flying in the air usually In Aviation, icing conditions are those atmospheric conditions that can lead to the formation of water Ice on the surfaces of an aircraft or within the engine Modern airliners are designed to prevent ice buildup on wings, engines, and tails (empennage) by either routing heated air from jet engines through the leading edges of the wing, tail, and inlets, or on slower aircraft, by use of inflatable rubber "boots" that expand and break off any accumulated ice. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David An aircraft engine is a Propulsion system for an Aircraft. Aircraft engines are almost always a type of lightweight Internal combustion engine. Empennage émpənij is an Aviation term used to describe the Tail portion of an Aircraft. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to The leading edge is a line connecting the forward-most points of a Wing 's profile A deicing boot is a device installed on Aircraft surfaces to permit a mechanical Deicing in flight

Finally, airline dispatch offices keep watch on weather along the routes of their flights, helping the pilots avoid the worst of inflight icing conditions. Dispatchers are communications personnel responsible for receiving and transmitting pure and reliable messages tracking vehicles and equipment and recording other important information Pilots can also be equipped with an ice detector in order to leave icy areas they have flown into. An ice detector is an optical Transducer probe available for Aviation purposes

Engine failure

Although aircraft are now designed to fly even after the failure of one or more aircraft engines, the failure of the second engine on one side for example is obviously serious. A flameout refers to the failure of a Jet engine caused by the extinction of the flame in the Combustion chamber. An engine is a mechanical device that produces some form of output from a given input Losing all engine power is even more serious, as illustrated by the 1970 Dominicana DC-9 air disaster, when fuel contamination caused the failure of both engines. The Dominicana de Aviación Santo Domingo DC-9 air disaster occurred on February 15th, 1970. Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy To have an emergency landing site is then very important. An emergency landing is an unplanned Landing made by an Aircraft in response to a crisis which either interferes with the operation of the aircraft or involves

In the 1983 Gimli Glider incident, an Air Canada flight suffered fuel exhaustion during cruise flight, forcing the pilot to glide the plane to an emergency deadstick landing. Gimli Glider is the nickname of an Air Canada aircraft which was involved in an infamous Aviation incident Air Canada () is Canada 's largest Airline and Flag carrier. The airline founded in 1937 has had its corporate headquarters in Montreal Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where flight is most fuel efficient A deadstick landing, also called a dead-stick landing or forced landing, occurs when an Aircraft loses all of its propulsive power and is forced to The automatic deployment of the ram air turbine maintained the necessary hydraulic pressure to the flight controls, so that the pilot was able to land with only a minimal amount of damage to the plane, and minor (evacuation) injuries to a few passengers. A ram air turbine (RAT is a small Turbine and connected hydraulic pump or Electrical generator used as power source for Aircraft. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering

The ultimate form of engine failure, physical separation, occurred in 1979 when a complete engine detached from American Airlines Flight 191, causing damage to the aircraft and loss of control. This article is an adaptation of a publication of the United States National Transportation Safety Board which can be found here American Airlines Flight 191 was a flight to Los Angeles International Airport from O'Hare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois.

Metal fatigue

Metal fatigue has caused failure either of the engine (for example in the January 8, 1989 Kegworth air disaster), or of the aircraft body, for example the De Havilland Comets in 1953 and 1954 and Aloha Airlines Flight 243 in 1988. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) The Kegworth Air Disaster occurred on January 8 1989 when British Midland Flight 092, a Boeing 737-400, crashed onto the embankment of the M1 WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Aloha Airlines was an American airline headquartered in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, operating from a hub at Honolulu International Aloha Airlines Flight 243 was a scheduled Aloha Airlines Boeing 737-297 flight between Hilo and Honolulu in Hawaii. Now that the subject is better understood, rigorous inspection and nondestructive testing procedures are in place. Nondestructive testing ( NDT) also called nondestructive examination ( NDE) and nondestructive inspection ( NDI) is testing that does

Delamination

Composite materials consist of layers of fibers embedded in a resin matrix. Composite materials (or composites for short are engineered Materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. In some cases, especially when subjected to cyclic stress, the fibers may tear off the matrix, the layers of the material then separate from each other - a process called delamination, and form a mica-like structure which then falls apart. Cyclic stress in engineering refers is an internal distribution of forces (a stress that changes over time in a repetitive fashion This article is about structural materials For delamination in embryology see Embryogenesis. The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially As the failure develops inside the material, nothing is shown on the surface; instrument methods (often ultrasound-based) have to be used. Not to be confused with Supersonic. Ultrasound is cyclic Sound pressure with a Frequency greater than the upper

Aircraft have developed delamination problems, but most were discovered before they caused a catastrophic failure. Delamination risk is as old as composite material. Even in the 1940s, several Yakovlev Yak-9s experienced delamination of plywood in their construction. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Plywood is a type of Engineered board made from thin sheets of Wood, called plies or veneers

Stalling

Stalling an aircraft (increasing the angle of attack to a point at which the wings fail to produce enough lift) is a danger, but is normally recoverable. For other uses see Stall. In Aerodynamics, a stall is a sudden reduction in the lift forces generated by an Airfoil Angle of attack ( AOA, \alpha Greek letter alpha) is a term used in Aerodynamics to describe the Angle between the In the context of a Fluid flow relative to a body the lift force is the component of the Aerodynamic force that is Perpendicular to the flow Devices have been developed to warn the pilot as stall approaches. These include stall warning horns (now standard on virtually all powered aircraft), stick shakers and voice warnings. A stick shaker is a mechanical device to rapidly and noisily vibrate the control yoke (the "stick" of an aircraft to warn the pilot of an imminent stall Two stall-related airline accidents were British European Airways Flight 548 in 1972, and the United Airlines Flight 553 crash, while on approach to Chicago Midway International Airport, also in 1972. British European Airways ( BEA) or British European Airways Corporation was a British Airline which existed from 1946 until 1974 British European Airways Flight 548 was a scheduled air service operated by British European Airways (BEA from London Heathrow Airport to Brussels Zaventem United Air Lines Inc, trading as United Airlines ( is a major airline of the United States. United Airlines Flight 553, registration, City of Lincoln, was a Boeing 737-222 en route from Washington National Airport to Omaha Chicago Midway International Airport, also known simply as Midway Airport or Midway, is an Airport in Chicago Illinois, United States

Fire

Safety regulations control aircraft materials and the requirements for automated fire safety systems. Usually these requirements take the form of required tests. The tests measure flammability and the toxicity of smoke. Flammability is the ease with which a substance will ignite causing Fire or Combustion. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism Smoke is the collection of airborne solid and liquid Particulates and Gases ref> ''Smoke Production and Properties'' - SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering When the tests fail, they fail on a prototype in an engineering laboratory, rather than in an aircraft.

Fire on board the aircraft, and more especially the toxic smoke generated, have been the cause of incidents. An electrical fire on Air Canada Flight 797 in 1983 caused the deaths of 23 of the 46 passengers, resulting in the introduction of floor level lighting to assist people to evacuate a smoke-filled aircraft. Air Canada Flight 797 was a scheduled trans-border flight that flew on a Dallas / Fort Worth - Toronto - Montreal route Two years later a fire on the runway caused the loss of 55 lives, 48 from the effects of incapacitating and subsequently lethal toxic gas and smoke, in the 1985 British Airtours Flight 28M. British Airtours was a UK Charter airline based at London Gatwick. On August 22, 1985, British Airtours Flight 28M, a Boeing 737-236, took off from Manchester International Airport 's Runway 24 in Manchester This incident raised serious concerns relating to survivability, something that prior to 1985 had not been studied in such detail. The swift incursion of the fire into the fuselage and the layout of the aircraft impaired passengers' ability to evacuate, with areas such as the forward galley area becoming a bottle-neck for escaping passengers, with some dying very close to the exits. A large amount of research into evacuation and cabin and seating layouts was carried at Cranfield Institute to try to measure what makes a good evacuation route which led to the seat layout by Overwing exits being changed by mandate and the examination of evacuation requirements relating to the design of galley areas. The Cranfield Institute for Safety Risk and Reliability (commonly referred to simply as The Cranfield Institute is a part of Cranfield University in the UK Overwing exits are found on passenger aircraft to provide a means of passenger Evacuation onto the wing where they either continue off the Trailing edge by sliding The use of smoke hoods or misting systems were also examined although both were rejected. A smoke hood is a protective device similar in concept to a Gas mask.

The cargo holds of most airliners are equipped with "fire bottles" (essentially remote-controlled fire extinguishers) to combat a fire that might occur in with the baggage and freight below the passenger cabin. A fire extinguisher is an Active fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires often in emergency situations This was due to an accident in 1996. In May of that year ValuJet Airlines Flight 592 crashed into the Florida Everglades a few minutes after takeoff after a fire broke out in the forward cargo hold. ValuJet Airlines was a Low-cost carrier that operated in the Eastern United States during the 1990s ValuJet Flight 592 was a flight that crashed on May 11 1996 en route from Miami International Airport in Miami Florida, United States to Hartsfield Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the Everglades is also the name of a city in Collier County Florida All 110 aboard were killed.

The investigation determined that improperly packaged chemical oxygen generators (used for the drop-down oxygen masks in the aircraft cabin) had been loaded into the cargo hold. A chemical oxygen generator is a device that releases Oxygen created by a Chemical reaction. An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing Oxygen gas from a storage tank to the Lungs. Oxygen generators produce oxygen through a chemical reaction that also generates hundreds of degrees of heat. A chemical oxygen generator is a device that releases Oxygen created by a Chemical reaction. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the When installed for use in the ceiling above the passenger seats they are surrounded by heat-resistant shielding and present no fire hazard. On this flight they had been put loosely into a cardboard box for shipment from a maintenance facility.

It is likely that one or more of the generators ignited, during or immediately after takeoff, producing an oxygen-rich environment. The cardboard box containing the generators would have quickly caught fire from the heat of the ignited generator. The fire spread to an aircraft tire that was also carried in the hold. Ordinarily the fire would have smothered itself, because of the airtight design of that cargo compartment. But the oxygen generators kept feeding oxygen to the fire, defeating the smothering design of the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 cargo hold. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The fire rapidly burned through the passenger cabin floor, incapacitating all aboard with smoke and poisonous gases very quickly. The pilots, although having smoke masks and separate oxygen supplies, had no hope of maintaining control as control cables and electrical wiring burned through.

The maintenance facility (SabreTech) was subjected to large fines and ValuJet, due to this accident and other irregularities, was grounded. The airline reemerged as a smaller airline and eventually merged with AirTran Airways, a smaller carrier. AirTran Airways is a low-cost Airline that is a Delaware corporation with headquarters in Orlando, Florida, USA and Adopting the acquired airline's name, the airline has since provided safe service. For the airline industry, rules for the shipment of oxygen generators was severely restricted and cargo holds on larger airliners were required to have "fire bottles" installed.

At one time fire fighting foam paths were laid down before an emergency landing, but the practice was considered only marginally effective, and concerns about the depletion of fire fighting capability due to pre-foaming led the United States FAA to withdraw its recommendation in 1987. Distinguish from a Firefight, which means a battle with firearms A foam path is the Aviation safety practice of spreading a layer of fire suppression foam on an Airport Runway prior to an Emergency landing

Bird strike

Bird strike is an aviation term for a collision between a bird and an aircraft. A bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (Bird Aircraft Strike Hazard in Aviation is a collision between an airborne animal (usually It is a common threat to aircraft safety and has caused a number of fatal accidents. In 1988 an Ethiopian Airlines Boeing 737 sucked pigeons into both engines during take-off and then crashed in an attempt to return to the Bahir Dar airport; of the 104 people aboard, 35 died and 21 were injured. Ethiopian Airlines (የኢትዮጵያ አየር መንገድ የኢትዮጵያ in short is an Airline based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Bahir Dar is a City in north western Ethiopia In another incident in 1995, a Dassault Falcon 20 crashed at a Paris airport during an emergency landing attempt after sucking lapwings into an engine, which caused an engine failure and a fire in the airplane fuselage; all 10 people on board were killed. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Vanellinae are a Subfamily of medium-sized wading Birds belonging to the family Charadriidae, which also includes the Plovers The fuselage (from the French fuselé "spindle-shaped" is an Aircraft 's main body section that holds crew and passengers or Cargo ^[8]

Modern jet engines have the capability of surviving an ingestion of a bird. Small fast planes, such as military jet fighters, are at higher risk than big heavy multi-engine ones. A fighter aircraft is a Military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other Aircraft, as opposed to a Bomber, which is designed This is due to the fact that the fan of a high-bypass turbofan engine, typical on transport aircraft, acts as a centrifugal separator to force ingested materials (birds, ice, etc. A turbofan is a type of Jet engine, similar to a Turbojet. It essentially consists of a Ducted fan with a smaller diameter turbojet engine ) to the outside of the fan's disc. As a result, such materials go through the relatively unobstructed bypass duct, rather than through the core of the engine, which contains the smaller and more delicate compressor blades. A bypass duct is an Annular passage that allows some of a turbofan's airflow to bypass the Engine core or Gas generator Military aircraft designed for high-speed flight typically have pure turbojet, or low-bypass turbofan engines, increasing the risk that ingested materials will get into the core of the engine to cause damage. A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing Aircraft that is in the current employ of a Military power TurboJET (噴射飛航 is the brand name for the operations of the Hong Kong -based Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited (信德中旅船務管理有限公司

The highest risk of the bird strike is during the takeoff and landing, in low altitudes, which is in the vicinity of the airports. Landing is the last part of a Flight, where a flying Animal, Aircraft, or Spacecraft returns to the ground Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data An airport is a location where Aircraft such as airplanes, Helicopters and blimps take off and land Some airports use active countermeasures, ranging from a person with a shotgun through recorded sounds of predators to employing falconers. A shotgun (also known as a scattergun) is a Firearm that is usually designed to be fired from the shoulder which uses the energy of a fixed shell to fire a number Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans Poisonous grass can be planted that is not palatable to birds, nor to insects that attract insectivorous birds. An insectivore is a type of carnivore with a diet that consists chiefly of Insects and similar small creatures Passive countermeasures involve sensible land-use management, avoiding conditions attracting flocks of birds to the area (eg. landfills). For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as Another tactic found effective is to let the grass at the airfield grow taller (approximately 12 inches (30 centimetres)) as some species of birds won't land if they cannot see one another. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth

Ground damage

Aircraft are occasionally damaged by ground equipment at the airport. Ground support equipment (GSE is found at an Airport, usually on the ramp, the servicing area by the terminal. In the act of servicing the aircraft between flights a great deal of ground equipment must operate in close proximity to the fuselage and wings. Occasionally the aircraft gets bumped or worse.

Damage may be in the form of simple scratches in the paint or small dents in the skin. However, because aircraft structures (including the outer skin) play such a critical role in the safe operation of a flight, all damage is inspected, measured and possibly tested to ensure that any damage is within safe tolerances. A dent that may look no worse than common "parking lot damage" to an automobile can be serious enough to ground an airplane until a repair can be made.

An example of the seriousness of this problem was the December 26, 2005 depressurization incident on Alaska Airlines flight 536. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Alaska Airlines, ( is an airline based in SeaTac, Washington, United States, near Seattle. During ground services a baggage handler hit the side of the aircraft with a tug towing a train of baggage carts. In the airline industry, a baggage handler is a person who loads and unloads Baggage ( Suitcases or Luggage) and other Cargo (airfreight Baggage carts, Luggage carts or Trolleys are small Vehicles Pushed by travelers ( human-powered) to carry individual Luggage This damaged the metal skin of the aircraft. This damage was not reported and the plane departed. Climbing through 26,000 feet (7,925 metres) the damaged section of the skin gave way due to the growing difference in pressure between the inside of the aircraft and the outside air. A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The cabin depressurized with a bang, frightening all aboard and necessitating a rapid descent back to denser (breathable) air and an emergency landing. Cabin pressurization is the active pumping of compressed Air into an Aircraft cabin when flying at altitude to maintain a safe and comfortable environment for crew Post landing examination of the fuselage revealed a 12 in × 6 in (30 cm × 15 cm) hole between the middle and forward cargo doors on the right side of the airplane. ^[9]

The three pieces of ground equipment that most frequently damage aircraft are the passenger boarding bridge, catering trucks, and cargo "beltloaders. The word “jetway” is sometimes used for a high-altitude airway. Ground support equipment (GSE is found at an Airport, usually on the ramp, the servicing area by the terminal. " However, any other equipment found on an airport ramp can damage an aircraft through careless use, high winds, mechanical failure, and so on. The airport ramp or apron is part of an Airport. It is usually the area where Aircraft are parked unloaded or loaded refueled or boarded

The generic industry colloquial term for this damage is "ramp rash", or "hangar rash". A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech, writing or Paralinguistics. A hangar is an enclosed structure to hold Aircraft in protective storage

Volcanic ash

Plumes of volcanic ash near active volcanoes present a risk especially for night flights. Volcanic ash consists of small Tephra, which are bits of pulverized rock and glass created by volcanic eruptions less than in diameter Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the The ash is hard and abrasive and can quickly cause significant wear on the propellers and turbocompressor blades, and scratch the cabin windows, impairing visibility. A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to It contaminates fuel and water systems, can jam gears, and can cause a flameout of the engines. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to Its particles have low melting point, so they melt in the combustion chamber and the ceramic mass then sticks on the turbine blades, fuel nozzles, and the combustors, which can lead to a total engine failure. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. A combustion chamber is the part of an Engine in which Fuel is burned The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) A combustor is a component or area of a Gas turbine, Ramjet or Pulsejet It can get inside the cabin and contaminate everything there, and can damage the airplane electronics. ^[10]

There are many instances of damage to jet aircraft from ash encounters. In one of them in 1982, British Airways Flight 009 flew through an ash cloud, lost all four engines, and descended from 36,000 ft (11,000 m) to only 12,000 ft (3,700 m) before the flight crew managed to restart the engines. British Airways Flight 9, sometimes referred to as the Jakarta incident, was a scheduled British Airways flight from London Heathrow to Auckland

With the growing density of air traffic, encounters like this are becoming more common. In 1991 the aviation industry decided to set up Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs), one for each of 9 regions of the world, acting as liaisons between meteorologists, volcanologists, and the aviation industry. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of Volcanoes, Lava, Magma, and related geological and Geophysical phenomena ^[11]

Human factors

See also aviation medicine

Human factors including pilot error are another potential danger, and currently the most common factor of aviation crashes. See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties Pilot error (sometimes called cockpit error) is a term used to describe the cause of a crash of an airworthy Aircraft where the pilot is considered to be principally Much progress in applying human factors to improving aviation safety was made around the time of World War II by people such as Paul Fitts and Alphonse Chapanis. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Paul M Fitts (1912 – 1965 was a Psychologist at Ohio State University (later at the University of Michigan) The American Alphonse Chapanis (1917 - 2002 was a true pioneer in the field Ergonomics, or Human factors - the science of ensuring that Design takes account However, there has been progress in safety throughout the history of aviation, such as the development of the pilot's checklist in 1937. A checklist is used as an aid to Memory. It helps to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task ^[12] Pilot error and improper communication are often factors in the collision of aircraft. A collision is an isolated event in which two or more bodies (colliding bodies exert relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time This can take place in the air (1978 Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 182) (TCAS) or on the ground (1977 Tenerife disaster) (RAAS). Pacific Southwest Airlines was an Airline headquartered in San Diego California. Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA Flight 182, registration N533PS was a Boeing 727-214 commercial Airliner that collided over San Diego California The Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (or TCAS) is an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air collisions between The renin-angiotensin system (RAS or the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS is a hormone system that regulates Blood pressure and water ( fluid The ability of the flight crew to maintain situational awareness is a critical human factor in air safety. Situation awareness, or SA is the perception of environmental elements within a volume of time and space the comprehension of their meaning and the projection of their status in the Human factors training is available to general aviation pilots and called single pilot resource management training. Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM is an adaptation of Crew Resource Management (CRM training to single-pilot operations

Failure of the pilots to properly monitor the flight instruments resulted in the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 40 in 1972 (CFIT), and error during take-off and landing can have catastrophic consequences, for example cause the crash of Prinair Flight 191 on landing, also in 1972. Eastern Air Lines was a major United States Airline that existed from the late 1920s until 1991 Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 was a Lockheed L-1011 jet that crashed into the Florida Everglades on the night of December 29 1972 causing 101 fatalities (77 initial Controlled flight into terrain ( CFIT) describes an accident whereby an airworthy Aircraft, under pilot control inadvertently flies into terrain an Prinair was Puerto Rico 's domestic and international Flag carrier airline for almost two decades Prinair Flight 191 was a Prinair (Puerto Rico International Airlines flight from Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan Puerto Rico

Rarely, flight crew members are arrested or subject to disciplinary action for being intoxicated on the job. Drunkenness or inebriation is the state of being intoxicated by consumption of Alcoholic beverages to a degree that mental and physical faculties are noticeably In 1990, three Northwest Airlines crew members were sentenced to jail for flying from Fargo, North Dakota to Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport while drunk. Northwest Airlines Inc (often abbreviated NWA) is the principal subsidiary Fargo is a city in Cass County, North Dakota in the United States. Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport is the largest and busiest airport in the five-state Upper Midwestern region of Minnesota, Iowa, In 2001, Northwest fired a pilot who failed a breathalyzer test after flying from San Antonio, Texas to Minneapolis-Saint Paul. A breathalyzer is a (breath analyser device for estimating Blood alcohol content (BAC from a breath sample In July 2002, two America West Airlines pilots were arrested just before they were scheduled to fly from Miami, Florida to Phoenix, Arizona because they had been drinking alcohol. America West Airlines was one of the United States ' ten major Airlines The airline was based in Phoenix Arizona, and is now a part of US Airways Group Phoenix (ˈfiːˌnɪks O'odham Skikik, Yavapai Wasinka, Western Apache Fiinigis, Navajo Hoozdo, In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon The pilots have been fired from America West and the FAA revoked their pilot's licenses. As of 2005 they await trial in a Florida court. ^[13] The incident created a public relations problem and America West has become the object of many jokes about drunk pilots. While these drunk-flying incidents did not result in crashes, they underscore the role that poor human choices can play in air accidents.

Human factors incidents are not limited to errors by the pilots. The failure to close a cargo door properly on Turkish Airlines Flight 981 in 1974 resulted in the loss of the aircraft - however the design of the cargo door latch was also a major factor in the incident. Turkish Airlines Inc ( Turkish Türk Hava Yolları Anonim Ortaklığı) (THY is the national airline of Turkey based in İstanbul Turkish Airlines Flight 981, registration TC-JAV was a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 which crashed just outside Senlis, France, on March 3 In the case of Japan Airlines Flight 123, improper maintenance resulted in the loss of the vertical stabilizer. ( or JAL, is an airline of Japan It is one of the largest Airline operators in Asia. Japan Airlines Flight 123 was a Japan Airlines domestic flight from Tokyo International Airport (Haneda to Osaka International Airport (Itami The vertical stabilizers, or fins, of Aircraft, Missiles or Bombs are typically found on the aft end of the Fuselage or body

Controlled flight into terrain

Main article: Controlled flight into terrain

Controlled flight into terrain is a class of accident in which an undamaged aircraft is flown, under control, into terrain. Controlled flight into terrain ( CFIT) describes an accident whereby an airworthy Aircraft, under pilot control inadvertently flies into terrain an CFIT accidents typically are a result of pilot error or of navigational system error. Some pilots, convinced that advanced electronic navigation systems such as GPS and inertial guidance systems (inertial navigation system or INS) coupled with flight management system computers , or over-relianced on them, are partially responsible for these accidents, have called CFIT accidents "computerized flight into terrain". An Inertial Navigation System (INS is a Navigation aid that uses a Computer and motion sensors to continuously track the position orientation and Velocity A flight management system or FMS is a Computerized Avionics Component found on most commercial and business Aircraft Failure to protect Instrument Landing System critical areas can also cause controlled flight into terrain. Critical area can refer to one of the following Aviation In Aviation, a critical area refers to a designated area of an Airport that all Crew awareness and monitoring of navigational systems can prevent or eliminate CFIT accidents. Crew Resource Management is a modern method now widely used to improve the human factors of air safety. Crew (or Cockpit Resource Management (CRM training originated from a NASA workshop in 1979 that focused on improving Air safety. The Aviation Safety Reporting System, or ASRS is another. The Aviation Safety Reporting System, or ASRS, is a voluntary system that allows pilots and other airplane crew members to confidentially report near misses and close calls in

Other technical aids can be used to help pilots maintain situational awareness. A ground proximity warning system is an on-board system that will alert a pilot if the aircraft is about to fly into the ground. Ground proximity warning system ( GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their Aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle Also, air traffic controllers constantly monitor flights from the ground and at airports. Air traffic controllers are people who operate the Air traffic control system to expedite and maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic and help prevent

Terrorism

Main article: Terrorism

Terrorism can also be considered a human factor. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion Crews are normally trained to handle hijack situations. Hijacking (also known as skyjacking and aircraft piracy) is the take over of an Aircraft, by a person or group usually armed Prior to the September 11, 2001 attacks, hijackings involved hostage negotiations. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, stricter airport security measures are in place to prevent terrorism using a Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System, Air Marshals, and precautionary policies. Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting Airports and Aircraft from Crime. The Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (often abbreviated CAPPS) is a Counter-terrorism system in place in the United States air travel The Federal Air Marshal Service (FAMS is a United States federal government Law enforcement agency under the supervision of the Transportation In addition, counter-terrorist organizations monitor potential terrorist activity. Counter-terrorism or counterterrorism refers to the practices tactics, techniques and strategies that Governments militaries, Police departments

Although most air crews are screened for psychological fitness, some may take suicidal actions. In the case of EgyptAir Flight 990, it appears that the first officer (co-pilot) deliberately dived his aircraft into the Atlantic Ocean while the captain was away from his station, in 1999 off Nantucket, Massachusetts. EgyptAir ( IATA Code MS ( Arabic: مصر للطيران) is the Flag carrier Airline of the Arab Republic of Egypt and a member EgyptAir Flight 990 (MSR990 was a regularly-scheduled Los Angeles - New York - Cairo flight In Commercial aviation, the first officer is the second pilot (sometimes referred to as the "co-pilot" of an Aircraft. Motivations are unclear, but recorded inputs from the black boxes showed no mechanical problem, no other aircraft in the area, and was corroborated by the cockpit voice recorder. The term black box is a Placeholder name used casually often by journalists to refer to a collection of several different recording devices used in transportation the A Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR is a Flight recorder used to record the audio environment in the flightdeck of an aircraft for the purpose of investigation of accidents and incidents

The use of certain electronic equipment is partially or entirely prohibited as it may interfere with aircraft operation, such as causing compass deviations. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Use of personal electronic devices and calculators may be prohibited when an aircraft is below 10,000', taking off, or landing. A calculator is device for performing mathematical calculations distinguished from a Computer by having a limited problem solving ability and an interface optimized for interactive The American Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prohibits the use of a cell phone on most flights, because in-flight usage creates problems with ground-based cells. There is also concern about possible interference with aircraft navigation systems, although that has never been proven to be a non-serious risk on airliners. A few flights now allow use of cell phones, where the aircraft have been specially wired and certified to meet both FAA and FCC regulations.

Airport design

Airport design and location can have a big impact on air safety, especially since some airports such as Chicago Midway International Airport were originally built for propeller planes and many airports are in congested areas where it is difficult to meet newer safety standards. Chicago Midway International Airport, also known simply as Midway Airport or Midway, is an Airport in Chicago Illinois, United States For instance, the FAA issued rules in 1999 calling for a runway safety area, usually extending 500 feet (150 m) to each side and 1,000 feet (300 m) beyond the end of a runway. A Runway safety area (RSA or runway end safety area (RESA is defined as "the surface surrounding the runway prepared or suitable for reducing the risk of damage to airplanes This is intended to cover ninety percent of the cases of an aircraft leaving the runway by providing a buffer space free of obstacles. Since this is a recent rule, many airports do not meet it. One method of substituting for the 1,000 feet (300 m) at the end of a runway for airports in congested areas is to install an Engineered materials arrestor system, or EMAS. An Engineered materials arrestor system or Engineered materials arresting system (EMAS is a bed of lightweight crushable Concrete built at the end of a runway These systems are usually made of a lightweight, crushable concrete that absorbs the energy of the aircraft to bring it to a rapid stop. They have stopped three aircraft (as of 2005) at JFK Airport. John F Kennedy International Airport is an International airport located in Queens County on Long Island in southeastern New York City about 12 miles (19

Infection

On an airplane, hundreds of people sit in a confined space for extended periods of time, which increases the risk of transmission of airborne infections. ^[14][15] For this reason, airlines place restrictions on the travel of passengers with known airborne contagious diseases (e. g. tuberculosis). Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic of 2003, awareness of the possibility of acquisition of infection on a commercial aircraft reached it zenith when on one flight from Hong Kong to Beijing, 16 of 120 people on the flight developed proven SARS from a single index case. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders ^[16]

There is very limited research (and this has been edited) done on contagious diseases on aircraft. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic The two most common respiratory pathogens to which air passengers are exposed are parainfluenza and influenza. In living organisms a respiratory system functions to allow Gas exchange. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs are a group of four distinct Serotypes of single-stranded RNA Viruses belonging to the Paramyxovirus ^[17] Certainly, the flight ban imposed following the attacks of September 11, 2001 restricted the ability of influenza to spread around the globe, resulting in a much milder influenza season that year,^[18] and the ability of influenza to spread on aircraft has been well documented. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. ^[14] There is no data on the relative contributions of large droplets, small particles, close contact, surface contamination, and certainly no data on the relative importance of any of these methods of transmission for specific diseases, and therefore very little information on how to control the risk of infection. There is no standardisation of air handling by aircraft, installation of HEPA filters or of hand washing by air crew, and no published information on the relative efficacy of any of these interventions in reducing the spread of infection. A high efficiency Particulate air or HEPA (ˈhɛpə filter is a type of high-efficiency Air filter. ^[19]

Emergency airplane evacuations

According to a 2000 report by the National Transportation Safety Board, emergency airplane evacuations happen about once every 11 days in the U. S. While some situations are extremely dire, such as when the plane is on fire, in many cases the greatest challenge for passengers can be the use of the airplane slide. In a TIME article on the subject, Amanda Ripley reported that when a new supersized Airbus A380 underwent mandatory evacuation tests in 2006, 33 of the 873 evacuating volunteers got hurt. While the evacuation was generally considered a success, one volunteer suffered a broken leg, while the remaining 32 received slide burns. Such accidents are common. In her article, Ripley provides tips on how to make it down the airplane slide without injury. ^[20]

Accidents and incidents

• List of airship accidents
• Lists of aviation accidents
• Aviation accidents and incidents
• Flight recorder, includes Flight data recorder and Cockpit voice recorder

Investigators

• Australian Transport Safety Bureau
• Transportation Safety Board of Canada
• Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (France)
• Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung (Germany)
• Air Accident Investigation Unit (Ireland)
• Aircraft and Railway Accidents Investigation Commission (Japan)
• Air Accidents Investigation Branch (UK)
• National Transportation Safety Board (USA)

Regulation

• Department of Transport and Regional Services (Australia)
• Transport Canada
• Joint Aviation Authorities (Europe)
• European Aviation Safety Agency
• Irish Aviation Authority
• United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority
• Federal Aviation Administration (US)
  • Federal Aviation Regulations

See also

• Aerospace engineering
• Aircraft
• Aircraft hijacking
• Aircraft safety card
• Avionics
• Avionics software
• Aviation
• Aviation archaeology
• Aviation history
• Aviation Safety Network (ASN)
• Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)
• Ballistic Recovery Systems (BRS)
• Canadian Air Transport Security Authority
• Charlie Victor Romeo
• Crashworthiness
• Flight planning
• Flight training
• General aviation
• Hazard analysis
• Human reliability
• In-flight safety demonstration
• JACDEC - Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
• Lasers and aviation safety
• List of air carriers banned in the EU
• Pilot error
• Road-traffic safety
• Safety of emergency medical services flights
• SKYbrary: The single point of reference in the network of aviation safety knowledge
• Swiss Cheese model of accident causation in human systems
• Transportation safety in the United States
• Windshear

Notes

External links

• Airdisaster - Database of Airborne Accidents
• Aviation Safety Network
• Flight Safety
• Jet Airliner Crash Data Evaluation Centre
• Air Transportation Safety Resources A recently updated comprehensive and annotated bibliography of books and periodicals designed to aid researchers.
• International Air Transport Association (IATA) Operational Safety Audit (IOSA)
• Aviation Safety: Advancements Being Pursued to Improve Airliner Cabin Occupant Safety and Health, 2003
• International Regulatory & Government Agencies
• Airline Safety.com
• NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS)
• The Adolescence of Aviation Psychology
• Aviation Safety Quotations
• Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) Official Website
• Airsafe
• Transport Canada TP 13549 - Sharing the Skies - An Aviation Industry Guide to the Management of Wildlife Hazards
• Aviation News

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