| Agriculture |
|---|
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| General |
| Agribusiness · Agriculture Agricultural science · Agronomy |
| History |
| History of agriculture Neolithic Revolution |
| Particular |
| Aquaculture · Christmas trees · Dairy farming Grazing · Hydroponics · IMTA |
| Categories |
| Agriculture by country Agriculture companies |
Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants, animals and other life forms. In Agriculture, agribusiness is a generic term that refers to the various Businesses involved in Food production including Farming, Seed Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and Social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding Extensive farming (as opposed to Intensive farming) is an agricultural production system that uses little inputs on vast areas of land such as the Great Plains. Factory farming is the practice of raising Farm animals in confinement at high stocking density where a farm operates as a Factory &mdash a practice typical in Free range is a method of Farming Husbandry where the Animals are allowed to roam freely instead of being contained in any manner Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production of Livestock, Poultry, Fish, and Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an Agricultural production system characterized by the high Inputs of Capital, Fertilizers Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation The word permaculture, coined by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren during the 1970s is a Portmanteau of perma nent agri' Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental Stewardship, Farm Profitability and prosperous Farming communities Urban Agriculture and Peri-Urban Agriculture is the practice of cultivating processing and distributing food in or around (peri-urban a village town or city Agriculture was developed at least 10000 years ago and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of development in Britain between the 18th century and the end of the 19th century which saw a massive increase in agricultural The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Christmas tree cultivation is an agricultural, Forestry, and horticultural occupation which involves growing Pine, Spruce, and Dairy farming is a class of agricultural, or an Animal husbandry enterprise for long-term production of Milk, which may be either processed on-site or Grazing generally describes a type of Predation in which an Herbivore feeds on Plants (such as Grasses, or more broadly on a multicellular Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro (water and ponos (labour is a method of growing Plants using mineral Nutrient solutions without Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA is a practice in which the by-products (wastes from one species are recycled to become inputs ( Fertilizers Food) for another Intensive piggeries (or hog lots) are a type of Factory farm specialized for the raising of Domestic pigs up to slaughter weight Lumber or timber is Wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural Material for Construction, or Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica An orchard is an intentional planting of Trees or Shrubs maintained for Food production. Poultry farming is the practice of raising Poultry, such as Chickens turkeys ducks geese, as a subcategory of Animal husbandry A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Sheep husbandry is the raising and breeding of Domestic sheep, and a subcategory of Animal husbandry. The System of Rice Intensification ( SRI) is a method of increasing the yield of Rice produced in Farming. Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact natural economic and Social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding
Agriculture encompasses many subjects, including aquaculture, agronomy, animal husbandry, and horticulture. Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Each of these subjects can be further partitioned: for example, agronomy includes both sustainable agriculture and intensive farming, and animal husbandry includes ranching, herding, and intensive pig farming. Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental Stewardship, Farm Profitability and prosperous Farming communities Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an Agricultural production system characterized by the high Inputs of Capital, Fertilizers A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group ( Herd) maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place&mdashor any combination of Intensive piggeries (or hog lots) are a type of Factory farm specialized for the raising of Domestic pigs up to slaughter weight Agricultural products include food (vegetables, fruits, and cereals), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax), fuels (methane from biomass, ethanol, biodiesel), cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade, both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine), and other useful materials such as resins. Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (binomial name Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also A nursery is a place where Plants are propagated and grown to usable size The term Biopharmacology describes a field of research closely related to Pharmacokinetics, sometimes called biopharmacy Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Recently, crops have been designed to produce plastic[1] as well as pharmaceuticals. Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products [2]
The history of agriculture is a central element of human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socio-economic change. Agriculture was developed at least 10000 years ago and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation Prehistory See also Prehistory Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens Social development redirects here For the aspect of Human biological development, see Psychosocial development Social change is a general term which Wealth-building and militaristic specializations rarely seen in hunter-gatherer cultures are commonplace in agricultural and agro-industrial societies—when farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in the tribe/village/City-state/nation/empire were freed to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition. Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a Town or City. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that Jared Diamond, among others, has argued that the development of civilization required agriculture. TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist
As of 2006, an estimated 45 percent of the world's workers are employed in agriculture (from 42% in 1996). However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of industrialization, and in 2006 – for the first time in history – the services sector overtook agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one A service is the non-material equivalent of a good. A service provision is an economic activity that does not result in Ownership, and this is what differentiates The Economy may be classified into subdivisions called sectors (also called Industries) in several ways [3] Despite the fact that agriculture employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products). Gross world product (GWP is the total Gross national product of all the countries in the world [4]
Contents |
Overview
Agriculture has played a key role in the of human civilization—it is widely believed that the domestication of plants and animals allowed humans to settle and give up their previous hunter-gatherer lifestyle during the Neolithic Revolution. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Development of agricultural techniques has steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these techniques during a time period is often called an agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies. In particular, the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary. The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the Nitrogen fixation reaction of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, over an iron substrate The Chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the Nitrate of Ammonia with the chemical formula N[[Hydrogen H]]4 N[[Oxygen O]]3 Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture. Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Rock phosphate is a general term for rock that contains a high concentration of Phosphate minerals, which commonly belong to the Apatite group A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Mechanized agriculture is the process of using Agricultural machinery to massively increase farm output In Agriculture, crop yield (also known as "agricultural output" is not only a measure of the Yield of cereal per unit area of land under cultivation Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world out to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food. Thomas Robert Malthus FRS (13 February 1766 – 23 December 1834 was an English political economist and demographer who expressed views [5]
Many governments have subsidized agriculture to ensure an adequate food supply. These agricultural subsidies are often linked to the production of certain commodities such as wheat, corn, rice, soybeans, and milk. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental Subsidy paid to Farmers and Agribusinesses to supplement their income manage the supply of agricultural Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. These subsidies, especially when done by developed countries have been noted as protectionist, inefficient, and environmentally damaging. The term developed country, or advanced country, is used to categorize countries with developed Economies in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909 see Protectionist Party [6] In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water contamination, and farm subsidies. Productivity in Economics refers to measures of output from production processes per unit of input Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant This article focuses on selective breeding in domesticated animals Mechanized agriculture is the process of using Agricultural machinery to massively increase farm output Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities An agricultural subsidy is a governmental Subsidy paid to Farmers and Agribusinesses to supplement their income manage the supply of agricultural Proponents of organic farming such as Sir Albert Howard argued in the early 1900s that the overuse of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers damages the long-term fertility of the soil. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation Sir Albert Howard (1873-1947 was a British Botanist, an Organic farming pioneer and a principal figure in the early Organic movement. While this feeling lay dormant for decades, as environmental awareness has increased recently there has been a movement towards sustainable agriculture by some farmers, consumers, and policymakers. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental Stewardship, Farm Profitability and prosperous Farming communities In recent years there has been a backlash against perceived external environmental effects of mainstream agriculture, particularly regarding water pollution[7], resulting in the organic movement. In Economics, an externality is an impact on any party not directly involved in an economic decision The organic movement broadly refers to the organizations and individuals involved worldwide in the promotion of organic farming which they believe to be a more sustainable mode of One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies[8], also known as decoupling. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Organic foods are produced according to certain production standards, meaning they are grown without the use of conventional Pesticides artificial Fertilizers The Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP) is a system of European Union Agricultural subsidies and programmes The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management and selective breeding. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation In Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods mechanical devices physical devices This article focuses on selective breeding in domesticated animals Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food. Genetically modified (GM foods are food items that have had their DNA changed through Genetic engineering.
As of late 2007, several factors have pushed up the price of grain used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year. [9][10] Food riots have recently taken place in many countries across the world. Riots are a form of Civil disorders characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of Violence, Vandalism or other [11][12][13] An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by race UG99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern. In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. [14][15][16] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. [17] In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. The (UNU is an agency of the United Nations established in Tokyo in 1973 to "research into the pressing global problems of human survival development [18]
Practices
Agricultural practices lie on a spectrum dependent upon the intensity and technology of the methods. At the one end lies the subsistence farmer who farms a small area with limited inputs and produces only enough food to meet the needs of his or her family. Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficient farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed the family and to pay taxes or feudal dues Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an At the other end lies intensive agriculture which includes traditional labor intensive farming (e. Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an Agricultural production system characterized by the high Inputs of Capital, Fertilizers g. South-East Asia rice paddies), and modern agriculture which includes industrial agriculture, organic farming and sustainable farming. Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production of Livestock, Poultry, Fish, and Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental Stewardship, Farm Profitability and prosperous Farming communities Industrial agriculture involves large fields and/or numbers of animals, high resource inputs (pesticides, fertilizers, etc. ), and a high level of mechanization. Mechanized agriculture is the process of using Agricultural machinery to massively increase farm output These operations achieve economies of scale and require large amounts of capital in the form of land and machinery.
The twentieth century saw changes in agricultural practice, particularly in agricultural chemistry and in mechanization. Agricultural Chemistry is the study of both Chemistry and Biochemistry which are important in Agricultural Production, the processing of raw Agricultural chemistry includes the application of chemical fertilizer, chemical insecticides (see pest control), and chemical fungicides, analysis of soil makeup and nutritional needs of farm animals. Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a Species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's Health Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores
Mechanization has increased farm efficiency and productivity in most regions of the world, due especially to the tractor and various "gins" (short for "engine") such as the cotton gin, semi-automatic balers and threshers and, above all, the combine (see agricultural machinery). A tractor is a Vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high Tractive effort at slow speeds for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used A Cotton Gin' (short for cotton engine) is a machine that quickly and easily separates the Cotton fibers from the seedpods and the sometimes sticky seeds a job This article describes the farm machinery For the municipality in Aurora, Philippines, see Baler Aurora. The thrashing machine, or in modern spelling threshing machine (or simply thresher) was a Machine first invented by Scottish Mechanical The combine harvester, or simply combine, also known as a thresher is a machine that combines the Agricultural machinery is one of the most Revolutionary and impactful applications of modern Technology. According to the National Academy of Engineering in the United States, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. The United States National Academy of Engineering (NAE is a private non-profit institution which was founded in 1964 under the same congressional act that led to the founding of the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2. 5 people. By 1999, due to advances in agricultural technology, a single farmer could feed over 130 people. [19]
Other recent changes in agriculture include hydroponics, plant breeding, hybridization, gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control. Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro (water and ponos (labour is a method of growing Plants using mineral Nutrient solutions without Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Weed control is the botanical component of Pest control, stopping weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to Domesticated Plants Genetic engineering has yielded crops which have capabilities beyond those of naturally occurring plants, such as higher yields and disease resistance. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Modified seeds germinate faster, and thus can be grown on an accelerated schedule. Genetic engineering of plants has proven controversial, particularly in the case of herbicide-resistant plants. Roundup is the brand name of a systemic broad-spectrum Herbicide produced by the U
It has been suggested that genetic engineers may some day develop transgenic plants which would allow for irrigation, drainage, conservation, sanitary engineering, and maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than conventional crops. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area Conservation can be confused with Conversation and vice versa [20] Such developments would be particularly important in areas which are normally arid and rely upon constant irrigation, and on large scale farms. These possibilities are questioned by ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable GMO practices such as terminator seeds,[21][22] and a January 2008 report shows that GMO practices have failed to address sustainability issues. [23] While there has been some research on sustainability using GMO crops, at least one hyped and promonant multi-year attempt by Monsanto has been unsuccessful, though during the same period traditional breeding techniques yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop. The Monsanto Company ( is a multinational Agricultural biotechnology Corporation. [24] Additionally, a survey by the bio-tech industry of subsistence farmers in Africa to discover what GMO research would most benefit sustainable agriculture only identified non-transgenic issues as areas needing to be addressed. [25]
The processing, packing and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for many farm products (see food preservation and meat packing industry). Food preservation is the process of treating and handling Food in a way that preserves its edibility and nutrition value The meat packing industry is an Industry that handles the slaughtering, Processing and distribution of animals such as Cattle
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. In Agriculture, a field refers generally to an area of Land enclosed or otherwise and used for agricultural purposes such as Cultivating crops See also Animal training In North America a wrangler is someone employed to handle Animals professionally especially horses, but also other Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship. Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding
Airplanes, helicopters, trucks, tractors, and combines are used in Western (and, increasingly, Eastern) agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, harvesting, aerial topdressing and transporting perishable products. Aerial topdressing is the spreading of fertilisers such as Superphosphate over Farmland with the use of Aircraft. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management.
In recent years, some aspects of intensive industrial agriculture have been the subject of increasing debate. Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production of Livestock, Poultry, Fish, and The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy ( BSE) commonly known as Mad-Cow Disease ( MCD) is a fatal Neurodegenerative disease in Cattle There has also been concern over the effect of intensive agriculture on the environment.
The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. The Indian activist and scientist Vandana Shiva argues that these companies are guilty of biopiracy. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Vandana Shiva ( Hindi: वन्दना शिवा b November 5, 1952, Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand, India) is a Physicist Biopiracy is a negative term for the appropriation generally by means of Patents, of legal rights over indigenous knowledge - particularly indigenous biomedical knowledge
Soil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the most advanced farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they use. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Conservation can be confused with Conversation and vice versa Nutrient management is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as managing the amount form placement and timing of the application of nutrients (whether Stewardship is personal responsibility for taking care of another person's property or financial affairs or in religious orders taking care of finances However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are concerns that can only be addressed by "enlightenment" of farmers and/or far stricter law enforcement in many countries. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15
Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community-supported agriculture, local food movement, "Slow Food", and commercial organic farming. Community-supported agriculture ( CSA) is a relatively new Socio-economic model of farming and food distribution Local food (also regional food or food patriotism) or the local food movement is a "collaborative effort to build more locally based self-reliant The Slow Food movement was founded by Carlo Petrini in Italy to combat Fast food. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation
Etymology
The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, "a field",[26] and cultūra, "cultivation" in the strict sense of "tillage of the soil". Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it [27] Thus, a literal reading of the word yields "tillage of a field / of fields".
History
Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. Evidence points to the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East as the site of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea and several regions of the Americas. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and pesticides were developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the Nitrogen fixation reaction of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, over an iron substrate The Chemical compound ammonium nitrate, the Nitrate of Ammonia with the chemical formula N[[Hydrogen H]]4 N[[Oxygen O]]3 In Agriculture, crop yield (also known as "agricultural output" is not only a measure of the Yield of cereal per unit area of land under cultivation In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, mechanization, water pollution, and farm subsidies. This article focuses on selective breeding in domesticated animals Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities An agricultural subsidy is a governmental Subsidy paid to Farmers and Agribusinesses to supplement their income manage the supply of agricultural In recent years there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement. In Economics, an externality is an impact on any party not directly involved in an economic decision The organic movement broadly refers to the organizations and individuals involved worldwide in the promotion of organic farming which they believe to be a more sustainable mode of
Ancient origins
- Further information: Neolithic Revolution
Source: http://www.kingtutone.com
Developed independently by geographically distant populations, systematic agriculture first appeared in Southwest Asia in the Fertile Crescent, particularly in modern-day Iraq and Syria/Israel. Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. The Fertile Crescent is a Crescent -shaped region in the Middle East, originally incorporating the Levant and Ancient Mesopotamia, and often For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Around 9500 BCE, proto-farmers began to select and cultivate food plants with desired characteristics. Though there is evidence of earlier sporadic use of wild cereals, it was not until after 9500 BCE that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. The Neolithic founder crops (or primary domesticates) are the eight Plant Species that were domesticated by early Holocene ( Pre-Pottery Emmer wheat ( Triticum dicoccon) also known as farro especially in Italy is a low yielding awned Wheat. Einkorn wheat (from German Einkorn, literally "one grain" can refer either to the wild species of Wheat, Triticum boeoticum (the spelling Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for A pea (inaccurately called a '''sweet pea''' by food distubutors is most commonly the small spherical Seed or the seed-pod of the Legume Pisum The lentil or daal or pulse ( Lens culinaris) is a bushy Annual plant of the legume family grown for its lens-shaped Seeds The bitter vetch ( Vicia ervilia) is an ancient grain legume crop of the Mediterranean region The chickpea ( Cicer arietinum) (also garbanzo bean, Indian pea, ceci bean, bengal gram, chana, kadale kaalu, Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (binomial name Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum
By 7000 BCE, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. From at least 7000 BCE the Indian subcontinent saw farming of wheat and barley, as attested by archaeological excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Balochistan or Baluchistan is an arid Region located in the Iranian Plateau in Southwest By 6000 BCE, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather than wheat, as the primary crop. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Chinese and Indonesian farmers went on to domesticate mung, soy, azuki and taro. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. ||-||} Mung bean, also known as green bean, mung, moong, mash bean, munggo or monggo, green gram, golden The azuki bean (also spelled adzuki or aduki) is an annual vine widely grown throughout East Asia and the Himalayas for its small Taro (from Tahitian or other Polynesian languages) more rarely kalo (from Hawaiian) and gabi in The Philippines, is a To complement these new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of rivers, lakes and ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of essential protein. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most For the computer security term see Phishing. Fishing is the activity of catching Fish. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Collectively, these new methods of farming and fishing inaugurated a human population boom dwarfing all previous expansions, and is one that continues today.
By 5000 BCE, the Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques including large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, particularly along the waterway now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Monocropping is the agricultural practice of growing the same crop year after year on the same land without Crop rotation through other crops Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת Domestication of wild aurochs and mouflon into cattle and sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of animals for food/fiber and as beasts of burden. The aurochs or urus ( Bos taurus primigenius) was a very large type of cattle that was prevalent in Europe until its Extinction in 1627 The mouflon ( Ovis orientalis orientalis group is a subspecies group of the wild sheep Ovis orientalis. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family The shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider for sedentary and semi-nomadic societies. A shepherd is a person who tends to feeds or guards Sheep, especially in flocks Sedentary lifestyle is a medical Neologism used to denote a type of Lifestyle most commonly found in modern (particularly Western) cultures Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that
Maize, manioc, and arrowroot were first domesticated in the Americas as far back as 5200 BCE. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native Arrowroot, or obedience plant ( Maranta arundinacea) is a large perennial Herb of genus Maranta found in Rainforest [4] The potato, tomato, pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, Canna, tobacco and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Capsicum is a Genus of Plants from the nightshade family ( Solanaceae) native to the Americas, where it was cultivated for thousands Squashes generally refer to four species of the genus Cucurbita native to the Mexico and Central America, also called marrows depending A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Canna (or Canna lily, although not a true Lily) is a Genus of approximately twenty Species of Flowering plants Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. In Agriculture, a terrace is a leveled section of a Hilly cultivated area designed as a method of Soil conservation to slow or prevent the rapid The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a
In later years, the Greeks and Romans built on techniques pioneered by the Sumerians but made few fundamentally new advances. Agriculture was the foundation of the Ancient Greek economy Nearly 80% of the population was involved in this activity Ancient Roman agriculture was highly regarded in Roman culture Southern Greeks struggled with very poor soils, yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The Romans were noted for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the use of machines such as norias, and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering Fluid pressure is the Pressure at some point within a Fluid, such as water or air A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain.
The invention of a three field system of crop rotation during the Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard plow, vastly improved agricultural efficiency. The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed
Modern era
- Further information: British Agricultural Revolution and Green Revolution
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After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of development in Britain between the 18th century and the end of the 19th century which saw a massive increase in agricultural The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to A tractor is a Vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high Tractive effort at slow speeds for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato, cocoa and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several varieties of wheat, spices, coffee, and sugar cane going from the Old World to the New. The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae Cocoa is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of the cacao tree from which Chocolate is made Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae The most important animal exportations from the Old World to the New were those of the horse and dog (dogs were already present in the pre-Columbian Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to farm work). Although not usually food animals, the horse (including donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly filled essential production roles on western hemisphere farms. The donkey or ass, Equus asinus, is a member of the Equidae or horse family and an odd-toed ungulate. A pony is a small Horse with a specific conformation and temperament
By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. Mechanized agriculture is the process of using Agricultural machinery to massively increase farm output A tractor is a Vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high Tractive effort at slow speeds for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
In 2005, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, accounting for almost one-sixth world share followed by the EU, India and the USA, according to the International Monetary Fund. Agriculture is the most important economic sector of China, employing over 300 million farmers The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 2. Total-factor productivity (TFP addresses any effects in total output not caused by inputs or economies of scale 6 times more productive than it was in 1948. [28]
Crops
Crop statistics
Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. A growing region is an area suited by Climate and soil conditions to the cultivation of a certain type of crop In millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates.
| Top agricultural products, by crop types (million metric tons) 2004 data | |
|---|---|
| Cereals | 2,263 |
| Vegetables and melons | 866 |
| Roots and Tubers | 715 |
| Milk | 619 |
| Fruit | 503 |
| Meat | 259 |
| Oilcrops | 133 |
| Fish (2001 estimate) | 130 |
| Eggs | 63 |
| Pulses | 60 |
| Vegetable Fiber | 30 |
| Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)[29] | |
| Top agricultural products, by individual crops (million metric tons) 2004 data | |
|---|---|
| Sugar Cane | 1,324 |
| Maize | 721 |
| Wheat | 627 |
| Rice | 605 |
| Potatoes | 328 |
| Sugar Beet | 249 |
| Soybean | 204 |
| Oil Palm Fruit | 162 |
| Barley | 154 |
| Tomato | 120 |
| Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)[29] | |
Crop alteration
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however Melon is a term used for various members of the Cucurbitaceae family with fleshy fruit ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store Nutrients They are used by Plants to overwinter and regrow the next year Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two An egg is a round or oval body laid by the female of many animals consisting of an Ovum surrounded by layers of Membranes and an outer casing which acts to nourish Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding from one to twelve Grains or Seeds of variable size shape and color within a Pod, according Fiber crops are field crops grown for their Fibers which are used to make Paper, Cloth, or Rope. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. The oil palms ( Elaeis) comprise two species of the Arecaceae, or palm family Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind A tractor is a Vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high Tractive effort at slow speeds for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used A chaser bin is a trailer towed by a Tractor with a built-in Auger system usually with a large capacity (around 15 tonnes is average Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision to cells and Organisms of the materials necessary (in the form of food to support Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses (known as glasshouses or hothouses in some areas) and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year towards the continued effort of improvement. A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants are cultivated Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Pasture is land with Herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of Ungulate Livestock as part of a Farm or Ranch. Extensive X-ray an ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn and barley. [30][31]
For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the USA have increased from around 2. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica 5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9. 4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2. 5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, Egypt and Arabia up to 3. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. 5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Variation in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging). Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a Species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's Health [32][33][34]
After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were more resistant to mechanical handling. These varieties have been criticized as being harder and having poor texture. More recently, genetic engineering has begun to be employed in large parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct One widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, a non-systemic (i. Roundup is the brand name of a systemic broad-spectrum Herbicide produced by the U Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl glycine is a non-selective Systemic Herbicide, absorbed through the leaves injected into the bole or applied to the stump of e kills all plants) chemical used to control weeds in a crop such as oilseed rape. Normally, expensive systemic herbicides would have to be applied to kill the weeds without harming the crop. Relatively cheap and safe glyphosate may be applied to the modified crops, efficiently killing weeds without harming the resistant crop. Another modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c. f. Starlink). Transgenic maize (corn has been deliberately genetically modified to have agronomically desirable traits This, in contrast, requires fewer insecticides to be applied to the crop.
Aquaculture, the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture. Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms
Apiculture, the culture of bees, traditionally for honey—increasingly for crop pollination. Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, Bee) is the maintenance of Honey bee colonies commonly in Hives Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the Pollination in angiosperms and Gymnosperms is the process that transfers pollen grains, which contain the male Gametes (sperm to where the female
- See also : cultigen, botany, List of domesticated plants, List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit
Livestock
The farming practices of livestock vary dramatically world-wide and between different types of animals. A cultigen is a plant that has been deliberately altered or selected by humans it is the result of Artificial selection. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life This is a list of plants that have been Domesticated by Humans. This is a list of Vegetables in the culinary sense This means that the list includes some botanical Fruits such as pumpkins and does not include Herbs Spices This is a list of Culinary Herbs and Spices Specifically these are food or drink additives of mostly Botanical origin used in nutritionally insignificant This list of culinary fruits contains the names of some fruits that are considered edible in some Cuisines The definition of fruit for these lists is a culinary fruit Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Livestock are generally kept in an enclosure, are fed by human-provided food and are intentionally bred, but some livestock are not enclosed, or are fed by access to natural foods, or are allowed to breed freely, or all three. Approximately 68% of all agricultural land is used in the production of livestock as permanent pastures. [35]
Environmental impact
Agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by-products. Some of the negative effects are:
- Loss of biodiversity
- Surplus of nitrogen and phosphorus in rivers and lakes
- Detrimental effects of herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, and other biocides
- Conversion of natural ecosystems of all types into arable land
- Consolidation of diverse biomass into a few species
- Soil erosion
- Deforestation
- Depletion of minerals in the soil
- Particulate matter, including ammonia and ammonium off-gassing from animal waste contributing to air pollution
- Air pollution from farm equipment powered by fossil fuels
- Weed science - feral plants and animals
- Odor from agricultural waste
- Soil salination
- Water crisis
According to the United Nations, the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms A biocide is a Chemical substance capable of killing living organisms, usually in a selective way An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort A feral organism is one that has escaped from Domestication and returned partly or wholly to its wild state WASTE is a Peer-to-peer and Friend-to-friend protocol and software application developed by Justin Frankel at Nullsoft in 2003 that features Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil Salt affected soils are caused by excess accumulation of salts typically most pronounced at the soil surface Water Crisis is a term that refers to the status of the world’s Water resources relative to human demand Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. [36]It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases—responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13. 5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2). It also generates 64% of the ammonia, which contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems. [37]
Biodiversity
- See also: Genetic erosion and Agricultural biodiversity
Genetic erosion in crops and livestock biodiversity is propelled by several major factors such as variety replacement, land clearing, overexploitation of species, population pressure, environmental degradation, overgrazing, policy and changing agricultural systems. Genetic erosion is a process whereby an already limited Gene pool of an Endangered species of plant or animal diminishes even more when individuals from the surviving Agricultural biodiversity is a sub-set of general Biodiversity including all cultivated varieties Genetic erosion is a process whereby an already limited Gene pool of an Endangered species of plant or animal diminishes even more when individuals from the surviving Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to Livestock Grazing for extended periods of time or without sufficient recovery periods
The main factor, however, is the replacement of local varieties of domestic plants and animals by high yielding or exotic varieties or species. A large number of varieties can also often be dramatically reduced when commercial varieties (including GMOs) are introduced into traditional farming systems. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Many researchers believe that the main problem related to agro-ecosystem management is the general tendency towards genetic and ecological uniformity imposed by the development of modern agriculture.
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the green revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield many folds by creating "high-yielding varieties". Animal husbandry, also called Animal science, stockbreeding or simple husbandry, is the agricultural practice of breeding The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. High-yielding varieties (HYVs are any of a group of genetically enhanced Cultivars of crops such as Rice, Maize and Wheat that have an increased Often the handful of breeds of plants and animals hybridized originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the rest of the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Hybridization of local breeds to improve performance may lead to the loss of the local breed over time and consequently the loss of the genetic material that adapted that breed specifically to the local conditions. When viewed across the world as a whole, the consequent loss in genetic diversity and biodiversity could be placing the food supply in jeopardy, as a highly specialized breed may not contain sufficient genetic material to adapt to new diseases or environments even with an intensive breeding program. [38]
A Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using the genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences Genetic Engineering today has become another serious and alarming cause of genetic pollution because artificially created and genetically engineered plants and animals in laboratories, which could never have evolved in nature even with conventional hybridization, can live and breed on their own and what is even more alarming interbreed with naturally evolved wild varieties. Genetically Modified (GM) crops today have become a common source for genetic pollution, not only of wild varieties but also of other domesticated varieties derived from relatively natural hybridization. [39][40][41][42][43]
Policy
Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. Agricultural policy describes a set of laws relating to domestic Agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products Agricultural policy describes a set of laws relating to domestic Agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include:
- Food safety: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination. Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling preparation, and storage of Food in ways that prevent Foodborne illness.
- Food security: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs. Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it [44][45]
- Food quality: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality. Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers
- Poverty Reduction
- Conservation
- Environmental impact
- Economic stability
Agriculture and petroleum
- Further information: Peak oil, agriculture and population; Effect of biofuels on food prices
Since the 1940s, agriculture has dramatically increased its productivity, due largely to the use of petrochemical derived pesticides, fertilizers, and increased mechanization. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Mechanization or mechanisation ( BE) is providing human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work This has allowed world population to grow more than double over the last 50 years. The world population is the total number of living Humans on Earth at a given time Every energy unit delivered in food grown using modern techniques requires over ten energy units to produce and deliver. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Because of modern agriculture's current heavy reliance on petrochemicals and mechanization, there are warnings that the ever decreasing supply of oil (the dramatic nature of which is known as peak oil[46][47][48][49][50]) will inflict major damage on the modern industrial agriculture system, and could cause large food shortages. [51]
Oil shortages are one of several factors making organic agriculture and other sustainable farming methods necessary. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals environmental Stewardship, Farm Profitability and prosperous Farming communities This conversion is now occurring, but the reconditioning of soil to restore nutrients lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques made possible by petroleum-based technology will take time. Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area Some farmers using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields as high as those available from conventional farming (but without the use of fossil-fuel-intensive artificial fertilizers or pesticides). [52][53][54][55]
Farmers have also begun raising crops such as corn for non-food use in an effort to help mitigate peak oil. The mitigation of peak oil is the attempt to delay the date and minimize the social and economic impact of Peak oil by reducing the world's consumption and reliance on Petroleum This has contributed to a 60% rise in wheat prices recently, and has been indicated as a possible precursor to "serious social unrest in developing countries. "[45] Such situations would be exacerbated in the event of future rises in food and fuel costs, factors which have already impacted the ability of charitable donors to send food aid to starving populations. [44]
The state of financial markets following the Subprime mortgage financial crisis increased interest in food commodities from private sectors such as pension funds, as more traditional investment opportunities came to be seen as less favourable. The subprime mortgage crisis is an ongoing financial crisis characterized by contracted Liquidity in global credit markets and Banking This in turn increased the cost of food worldwide. [56]
Agriculture safety and health
United States
Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries. [57] Farmers are at high risk for fatal and nonfatal injuries, work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. Farming is one of the few industries in which the families (who often share the work and live on the premises) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and death.
- In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U. S. (1992-2005). Of these deaths, 101 are caused by tractor overturns.
- Every day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in permanent impairment. [58]
Young Workers
Agriculture is the most dangerous industry for young workers, accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in the U. S. between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculture were under age 15. [59]
For young agricultural workers aged 15–17, the risk of fatal injury is four times the risk for young workers in other workplaces [60] Agricultural work exposes young workers to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around livestock.
- An estimated 1. 26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of age resided on farms in 2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on the farms. In addition to the youth who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children and adolescents were hired to work on U. S. farms in 2004.
- On average, 103 children are killed annually on farms (1990-1996). Approximately 40 percent of these deaths were work-related.
- In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and adolescents were injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work. [58]
Additional information
See also
- Main lists: List of basic agriculture topics and List of agriculture topics
| Part of a series on Horticulture and Gardening |
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| Gardening |
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Gardening • Garden • Botanical garden • Arboretum • Botany • Plant |
| Horticulture |
Horticulture • Agriculture • Urban agriculture • City farm • Organic farming • Herb farm • Hobby farm • Intercropping • Farm |
| Customs |
| Plant protection |
- Aeroponics
- Agricultural Engineering
- Agrocenter
- Agricultural effects of peak oil
- Apiculture
- Climate change and agriculture
- Dismal Science - highlighting that only continuous advancement in agricultural science avoids a Malthusian catastrophy
- Geoponic
- Green Revolution
- Horticulture
- Hydroponic
- Industrial agriculture
- Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
- List of countries by GDP sector composition - a breakdown that includes Agricultural sector information
- List of domesticated animals
- List of subsistence techniques
- List of sustainable agriculture topics
- Organic farming
- Permaculture
- Timeline of agriculture and food technology. Gardening is the practice of growing Plants for their attractive flowers or foliage and Vegetables or Fruits for consumption A garden is a planned space usually outdoors set aside for the display cultivation and enjoyment of Plants and other forms of Nature. Botanical gardens grow a wide variety of Plants primarily to categorize and document for scientific purposes An arboretum is a collection of trees Related collections include a fruticetum (from the Latin frutex, meaning shrub and a viticetum a collection of vines Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Urban Agriculture and Peri-Urban Agriculture is the practice of cultivating processing and distributing food in or around (peri-urban a village town or city City farms are community-run projects in Urban areas which involve people working with animals and plants Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation A herb farm is usually a Farm where Herbs are grown for market sale A hobby farm is a Smallholding or small farm that is maintained without expectation of being a primary source of income Intercropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time (Andrews & Kassam 1976 A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock A harvest festival is an annual celebration which occurs around the time of the main harvest of a given region Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a traditional North American Holiday, which is a form of harvest festival. Agriculture was developed at least 10000 years ago and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Weed control is the botanical component of Pest control, stopping weeds from reaching a mature stage of growth when they could be harmful to Domesticated Plants Aeroponics is the process of growing Plants in an Air or Mist environment without the use of Soil or an aggregate medium Agricultural engineering' is the engineering discipline that applies Engineering science and technology to Agricultural production and processing living systems and to the An agrocenter is an agriculturally -oriented shop where one sells Pesticides Feed and Fertilizers. Beekeeping (or apiculture, from Latin apis, Bee) is the maintenance of Honey bee colonies commonly in Hives Climate change and Agriculture are interrelated processes both of which take place on a global scale The dismal science is a derogatory alternative name for Economics devised by the Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century The terms "geoponic" and "geoponics" refer to growing plants in a normal soil The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro (water and ponos (labour is a method of growing Plants using mineral Nutrient solutions without Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production of Livestock, Poultry, Fish, and In Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods mechanical devices physical devices In Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management (IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods mechanical devices physical devices This is a list of countries by GDP sector composition based on nominal GDP estimates and sector composition ratios provided by the CIA World Fact Book at market or government This is a list of animals that have been domesticated by Humans. Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals Environmental health, Economic profitability, and social and economic equity Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation The word permaculture, coined by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren during the 1970s is a Portmanteau of perma nent agri' Timeline of Agriculture and Food technology Neolithic Revolution 12000 BC - Neolithic Revolution, the first
- Vertical farming
Notes
- ^ Marketwatch (2007) Plastics are Green in More Ways Than One. Vertical farming is a proposal to perform Agriculture in urban High-rises These building have been called "farmscrapers
- ^ BIO (n. d. ) Growing Plants for Pharmaceutical Production vs. for Food and Feed Crops.
- ^ International Labour Organization Key Indicators of the Labour Market 2007, chapter 4 p. 6
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#Econ. The International Labour Organization
- ^ New York Times (2005) Sometimes a Bumper Crop is Too Much Of a Good Thing
- ^ New York Times (1986) Science Academy Recommends Resumption of Natural Farming
- ^ The World Bank (1995) Overcoming Agricultural Water Pollution in the European Union
- ^ European Commission (2003) CAP Reform
- ^ New York Times (2007 September) At Tyson and Kraft, Grain Costs Limit Profit
- ^ Forget oil, the new global crisis is food
- ^ Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring
- ^ Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?
- ^ Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits
- ^ Millions face famine as crop disease rages
- ^ "Billions at risk from wheat super-blight" (2007-04-03). New Scientist Magazine (issue 2598).
- ^ Leonard, K. J. Black stem rust biology and threat to wheat growers, USDA ARS
- ^ Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land
- ^ Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025
- ^ http://www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga_7_2.html.
- ^ Srinivas et al (June, 2008). "REVIEWING THE METHODOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVING" 7. The Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
- ^ Conway, G. (2000). "Genetically modified crops: risks and promise" 4(1): 2. Conservation Ecology.
- ^ . R. Pillarisetti and Kylie Radel (June 2004). "Economic and Environmental Issues in International Trade and Production of Genetically Modified Foods and Crops and the WTO" Volume 19, Number 2. Journal of Economic Integration.
- ^ Juan Lopez Villar & Bill Freese (January 2008). Who Benefits from GM Crops? (pdf). Friends of the Earth International.
- ^ "Monsanto's showcase project in Africa fails" (7 February 2004) Vol 181 No. 2433. New Scientist. New Scientist is a weekly International science magazine and website covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English -speaking
- ^ Devlin Kuyek (August 2002). Genetically Modifi ed Crops in Africa: Implications for Small Farmers (pdf). Genetic Resources Action International (GRAIN).
- ^ Latin Word Lookup
- ^ Latin Word Lookup
- ^ USDA ERS. Agricultural Productivity in the United States
- ^ a b FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAOSTAT). Retrieved on 2007-10-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1138 - A massive earthquake struck Aleppo, Syria. 1531 - Huldrych Zwingli is killed
- ^ Stadler, L. J.; G. Lewis John Stadler ( July 6, 1896 - May 12, 1954) was an American geneticist F. Sprague (1936-10-15). "Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize. I. Unfiltered Radiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 22 (10): 572-578. US Department of Agriculture and Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station.
- ^ Berg, Paul; Maxine Singer (2003-08-15). George Beadle: An Uncommon Farmer. The Emergence of Genetics in the 20th Century. Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-688-5.
- ^ Ruttan, Vernon W. (Winter 1999). "Biotechnology and Agriculture: A Skeptical Perspective". AgBioForum 2 (1): 54-60.
- ^ Cassman, K. (1998-12-05). "Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: The Challenge of increasing crop yield potential and precision agriculture". Proceedings of a National Academy of Sciences Colloquium, Irvine, California. University of Nebraska.
- ^ Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27. 215 kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25. 401 kg
- ^ FAO Database, 2003
- ^ Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved 27 jun 2007
- ^ Livestock’s long shadow: Environmental issues and options
- ^ “Genetic Pollution: The Great Genetic Scandal”; Devinder Sharma can be contacted at: 7 Triveni Apartments, A-6 Paschim Vihar, New Delhi-110 063, India. Email: dsharma@ndf. vsnl. net. in. CENTRE FOR ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURAL MEDIA (CAAM). , [1]
- ^ THE YEAR IN IDEAS: A TO Z.; Genetic Pollution By MICHAEL POLLAN, The New York Times, December 9, 2001
- ^ Dangerous Liaisons? When Cultivated Plants Mate with Their Wild Relatives by Norman C. Ellstrand; The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003; 268 pp. hardcover , $ 65; ISBN 0-8018-7405-X. Book Reviewed in: Hybrids abounding; Nature Biotechnology 22, 29 - 30 (2004) doi:10. 1038/nbt0104-29; Reviewed by: Steven H Strauss & Stephen P DiFazio.
- ^ “Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled spread of genetic information (frequently referring to transgenes) into the genomes of organisms in which such genes are not present in nature.” Zaid, A. et al. 1999. Glossary of biotechnology and genetic engineering. FAO Research and Technology Paper No. 7. ISBN 92-5-104369-8
- ^ “Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled escape of genetic information (frequently referring to products of genetic engineering) into the genomes of organisms in the environment where those genes never existed before.” Searchable Biotechnology Dictionary. University of Minnesota. [2]
- ^ “Genetic pollution: Living organisms can also be defined as pollutants, when a non-indigenous species (plant or animal) enters a habitat and modifies the existing equilibrium among the organisms of the affected ecosystem (sea, lake, river). Non-indigenous, including transgenic species (GMOs), may bring about a particular version of pollution in the vegetal kingdom: so-called genetic pollution. This term refers to the uncontrolled diffusion of genes (or transgenes) into genomes of plants of the same type or even unrelated species where such genes are not present in nature. For example, a grass modified to resist herbicides could pollinate conventional grass many miles away, creating weeds immune to the most widely used weed-killer, with obvious consequences for crops. Genetic pollution is at the basis of the debate on the use of GMOs in agriculture. ” The many facets of pollution; Bologna University web site for Science Communication. The Webweavers: Last modified Tue, 20 Jul 2005
- ^ a b Rising food prices curb aid to global poor
- ^ a b Record rise in wheat price prompts UN official to warn that surge in food prices may trigger social unrest in developing countries
- ^ Kenneth S. Deffeyes (2007-01-19). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Current Events - Join us as we watch the crisis unfolding (English). Princeton University: Beyond Oil.
- ^ Ryan McGreal (2007-10-22). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BC - Hannibal Barca, leader of the Carthaginians, is defeated by the Roman legions under Scipio Africanus Yes, We're in Peak Oil Today (English). Raise the Hammer.
- ^ Dr. Werner Zittel, Jorg Schindler (2007-10). Crude Oil: The Supply Outlook (English). Energy Watch Group.
- ^ Dave Cohen (October 31, 2007). The Perfect Storm (English). ASPO-USA.
- ^ Rembrandt H. E. M. Koppelaar (2006-09). World Production and Peaking Outlook (PDF) (English). Peak Oil Netherlands.
- ^ (a list of over 20 published articles and books supporting this thesis can be found here in the section: "Food, Land, Water, and Population")
- ^ Realities of organic farming
- ^ http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/organicag/researchreports/nk01ltar.pdf
- ^ Organic Farming can Feed The World!
- ^ Organic Farms Use Less Energy And Water
- ^ [3]The Threat of Global Food Shortages - Yale Global Online
- ^ NIOSH- Agriculture. United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated
- ^ a b NIOSH- Agriculture Injury. United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved on 2007-10-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated
- ^ NIOSH [2003]. Unpublished analyses of the 1992–2000 Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Special Research Files provided to NIOSH by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (includes more detailed data than the research file, but excludes data from New York City). Morgantown, WV: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research, Surveillance and Field Investigations Branch, Special Studies Section. Unpublished database.
- ^ BLS [2000]. Report on the youth labor force. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, pp. 58–67.
References
- Bolens, L. (1997), `Agriculture’ in Encyclopedia of the history of Science, technology, and Medicine in Non Western Cultures, Editor: Helaine Selin; Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp 20-2
- Collinson, M. (editor): A History of Farming Systems Research. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-85199-405-9
- Crosby, Alfred W. : The Columbian Exchange : Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN 0-275-98073-1
- Davis, Donald R. , and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682.
- Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research. Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.
- Saltini A. Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2414-X
- Watson, A. M (1974), ‘The Arab agricultural revolution and its diffusion’, in The Journal of Economic History, 34,
- Watson, A. M (1983), ‘ Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World’, Cambridge University Press
- Wells, Spencer: The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-691-11532-X
- Wickens, G. M. (1976), ‘What the West borrowed from the Middle East’, in Introduction to Islamic Civilization, edited by R. M. Savory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
External links
- UKAgriculture.com - Advance the education of the public in all aspects of agriculture, the countryside and the rural economy
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Agriculture Page
- Research on the role of Agriculture in Poverty Reduction from the Overseas Development Institute
- Barbagallo, Tricia (June 01, 2005). The Overseas Development Institute (ODI is the United Kingdom 's leading independent Think tank on International development and humanitarian issues Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Black Beach: The Mucklands of Canastota, New York. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China.
- Directorate-General Agriculture and Rural Development - European Commission
- Tillage and Farming events in the UK
Dictionary
agriculture
-noun
- The art or science of cultivating the ground, including the harvesting of crops, and the rearing and management of livestock; tillage; husbandry; farming.
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