History of Western philosophy
Pre-Socratic · Ancient Medieval · Renaissance 17th · 18th · 19th · 20th century Postmodern · Contemporary
See also Eastern philosophy (Babylonian · Indian · Iranian Chinese · Korean) Religious philosophy (Christian · Islamic · Jewish)
v • d • e

The word "Enlightment" redirects here. The Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers were active before Socrates or contemporaneously but expounding knowledge developed earlier This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the end of Hellenistic Medieval philosophy is the Philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as Medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from Renaissance philosophy was the period of the History of philosophy in Europe that falls roughly between the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach In the 18th century the philosophies of The Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect the landmark works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Postmodern philosophy' is a philosophical direction which is critical of the foundational assumptions and structures of philosophy See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] Contemporary philosophy is the period in the history of philosophy that began at the end of the nineteenth Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Persian Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Iranian philosophy or Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as to Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought There has been a continuous history of Philosophy in Korea, that goes back more than two thousand years Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious Christian philosophy is a term to describe the fusion of various fields of Philosophy with the theological doctrines of Christianity. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology For other usages see Enlightenment.

The Age of Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system The term came into use in English during the mid-nineteenth century,^[1] with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of a term then in use by German writers, Zeitalter der Aufklärung, signifying generally the philosophical outlook of the eighteenth century. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as It does not represent a single movement or school of thought, for these philosophies were often mutually contradictory or divergent.

"Age of Enlightenment" and "The Enlightenment" refer particularly to the intellectual and philosophical developments of that age (and their impact in moral and social reform), in which Reason was advocated as the primary source and basis of authority. In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Developing in Germany, France and Britain, the movement spread through much of Europe, including Russia and Scandinavia. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well The signatories of the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen were motivated by "Enlightenment" principles. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then In the United States the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are known The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining The era is marked by political aspiration towards governmental consolidation, nation-creation and greater rights for common people, attempting to supplant the arbitrary authority of aristocracy and established churches.

The eighteenth century was an age of optimism, tempered by the realistic recognition of the sad state of the human condition and the need for major reforms. The Enlightenment was less a set of ideas than it was a set of attitudes. At its core was a critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals. Some classifications of this period also include the late 17th century, which is typically known as the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism. 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach ^[2]

There is no consensus on when to date the start of the age of Enlightenment, and a number of scholars simply use the beginning of the eighteenth century or the middle of the seventeenth century as a default date. ^[3] Many scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions ^[4] Still others capstone the Enlightenment with its beginning in Britain's Glorious Revolution of 1688 and its ending in the French Revolution of 1789. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an

Contents 1 Origins of the Enlightenment 2 Influence 3 Important figures 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading

Origins of the Enlightenment

Following the revolution of knowledge commenced by René Descartes and Isaac Newton, and in a climate of increasing disaffection with repressive rule, Enlightenment thinkers believed that systematic thinking might be applied to all areas of human activity, and carried into the governmental sphere, in their explorations of the individual, society and the state. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements As commonly used, individual refers to a Person or to any specific object in a collection A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. ^[5] Its leaders believed they could lead their states to progress after a long period of tradition, irrationality, superstition, and tyranny which they imputed to the Middle Ages. Historical progress has been a main object of Philosophy of history. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of Irrationality is talking or acting without regard of Rationality. Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. The movement helped create the intellectual framework for the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions, Poland's Constitution of May 3, 1791, Russia's 1825 Decembrist Revolt, the Latin American independence movement, and the Greek national independence movement. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as The term Latin American revolutions refers to the various Revolutions that took place during the early 19th century that resulted in the creation of a number of independent countries The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829 also commonly known as the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση Elliniki Epanastasi; Ottoman In addition, Enlightenment ideals were influential in the Balkan independence movements against the Ottoman Empire, and many historians and philosophers credit the Enlightenment with the later rise of classical liberalism, socialism, democracy, and modern capitalism. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where

The Age of Enlightenment receives modern attention as a central model for many movements in the modern period. Another important movement in 18th century philosophy, closely related to it, focused on belief and piety. Some of its proponents, such as George Berkeley, attempted to demonstrate rationally the existence of a supreme being. George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher. Piety and belief in this period were integral to the exploration of natural philosophy and ethics, in addition to political theories of the age. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions However, prominent Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and David Hume questioned and attacked the existing institutions of both Church and State. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The 19th century also saw a continued rise of empiricist ideas and their application to political economy, government and sciences such as physics, chemistry and biology. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles

The continent of Europe had been ravaged by religious wars in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. A religious war is a War caused by religious differences It can involve one state with an established religion against another state with a different religion or a different When political stability had been restored, notably after the Peace of Westphalia and the English Civil War, an intellectual upheaval overturned the accepted belief that mysticism and revelation are the primary sources of knowledge and wisdom. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Instead (according to scholars who split the two periods), the Age of Reason sought to establish axiomatic philosophy and absolutism as foundations for knowledge and stability. Epistemology, in the writings of Michel de Montaigne and René Descartes, was based on extreme skepticism and inquiry into the nature of "knowledge. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (French miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ ( February 28 1533 &ndash September 13 1592) was one of the most influential writers " The goal of a philosophy based on self-evident axioms reached its height with Baruch (Benedictus de) Spinoza's Ethics, which expounded a pantheistic view of the universe where God and Nature were one. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Ethics is a philosophical book written by Baruch Spinoza. It was written in Latin. Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All This idea then became central to the Enlightenment from Newton through to Jefferson. The ideas of Pascal, Leibniz, Galileo and other natural philosophers of the previous period also contributed to and greatly influenced the Enlightenment. Blaise Pascal (blɛz paskal (June 19 1623 &ndash August 19 1662 was a French Mathematician, Physicist, and religious Philosopher Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Cassirer argued that Leibniz’s Treatise On Wisdom "identified the central concept of the Enlightenment and sketched its theoretical programme. "^[6]. There was a wave of change across European thinking, exemplified by Newton's natural philosophy, which combined mathematics of axiomatic proof with mechanics of physical observation, a coherent system of verifiable predictions, which set the tone for what followed Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in the century after. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia

The Age of Enlightenment is also prominent in the history of Judaism, perhaps because of its conjunction with increased social acceptance of Jews in some western European states, especially those who were not orthodox or who converted to the officially sanctioned version of Christianity. ^[7] Antisemitism, however, continued to remain a visible phenomenon throughout much of Europe during the Enlightenment, and a number of major Enlightenment figures were noted antisemites. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility ^[8] The period is known as Haskalah in Jewish historiography, and the term carries the same connotations of "enlightenment" in Hebrew. Haskalah ( Hebrew: השכלה "enlightenment" "education" from sekhel " Intellect " "mind") the Jewish Enlightenment ^[9]

Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States were also influenced by Enlightenment-era ideas, especially the views of John Locke on the duties and role of government for the people. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher.

Recent research has also shown that women played an important, if somewhat limited, role in the Enlightenment, producing an unprecedented volume of published works. ^[10]

Influence

Social democracy  v • d • e  Precursors ♦ The Age of Enlightenment ♦ Utopian socialism ♦ Trade Unionism ♦ The Revolutions of 1848 ♦ Orthodox Marxism Development ♦ Revisionism/Reformism ♦ Third way Policies ♦ Representative democracy ♦ Labour rights ♦ Civil liberties ♦ Welfare state ♦ Mixed economy ♦ Secularism ♦ Fair trade ♦ Environmental protection Organizations ♦ Social democratic parties ♦ Socialist International ♦ Party of European Socialists ♦ ITUC Important figures ♦ Eduard Bernstein ♦ Hjalmar Branting ♦ Friedrich Ebert ♦ Jean Jaurès ♦ Léon Blum ♦ Karl Kautsky ♦ Ramsay MacDonald ♦ Clement Attlee ♦ Tommy Douglas

The Enlightenment occupies a central role in the justification for the movement known as modernism. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European Orthodox Marxism is the term used to describe the version of Marxism which emerged after the death of Karl Marx and acted as the official philosophy of the The term "revisionism" is also used to refer to other concepts Socialist Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a Society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures The Third Way is a term that has been used to describe a variety of political philosophies of governance that embracing a mix of market and interventionist philosophies Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principles of the people's representatives Labor rights or workers' rights are a group of Legal rights and claimed Human rights having to do with Labor relations between Workers thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government. This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. A mixed economy is an Economic system that incorporates aspects of more than one economic system Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Fair trade is an organized Social movement and market-based approach to empowering developing country producers and promoting sustainability Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. This is a list of parties in the world that consider themselves to be upholding the principles and values of Social democracy. Socialist International is a worldwide organization of socialist ( social democratic and labour) political parties The Party of European Socialists (PES is a European political party comprising of thirty-three socialist, social democratic and labour Inaugural Congress The founding and first congress of the ITUC was held November 1 - 3 2006 in Vienna Eduard Bernstein ( January 6 1850 December 18 1932) was a German social democratic theoretician and ( 23 November 1860 – 24 February 1925) was a Swedish politician Friedrich Ebert ( February 4, 1871 February 28, 1925) was a German Politician ( SPD) who served as Jean Léon Jaurès (full name Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès; 3 September 1859 31 July 1914) was a French André Léon Blum (9 April 1872 30 March 1950 was a French politician usually identified with the moderate left and three times the Prime Minister of France. Karl Kautsky ( October 16 1854 - October 17 1938) was a leading theoretician of Social democracy. James Ramsay MacDonald ( 12 October 1866 &ndash 9 November 1937) was a British politician and twice Prime Minister of the United Clement Richard Attlee 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC ( 3 January 1883 &ndash 8 October 1967 Thomas Clement "Tommy" Douglas, PC, CC, SOM ( October 20, 1904 – February 24, 1986) was a Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century The neo-classicizing trend in modernism came to see itself as a period of rationality which overturned established traditions, analogously to the Encyclopaediasts and other Enlightenment philosophers. A variety of 20th century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, traced their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment, and away from the purported emotionalism of the 19th century. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Neoclassicism (sometimes rendered as Neo-Classicism or Neo-classicism) is the name given to quite distinct movements in the decorative and Geometric order, rigor and reductionism were seen as Enlightenment virtues. The modern movement points to reductionism and rationality as crucial aspects of Enlightenment thinking, of which it is the heir, as opposed to irrationality and emotionalism. Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to In this view, the Enlightenment represents the basis for modern ideas of liberalism against superstition and intolerance. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief Influential philosophers who have held this view include Jürgen Habermas and Isaiah Berlin. Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of Sir Isaiah Berlin, OM (6 June 1909 &ndash 5 November 1997 was a philosopher and historian of ideas regarded as one of the leading liberal thinkers of the twentieth century

This view asserts that the Enlightenment was the point when Europe broke through what historian Peter Gay calls "the sacred circle,"^[11] whose dogma had circumscribed thinking. Peter Gay (born June 20, 1923) is a Jewish American historian of the Social history of ideas born as Peter Joachim Fröhlich The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas, such as the centrality of freedom, democracy and reason as primary values of society. Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking This view argues that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. Market mechanism is a term from Economics referring to the use of Money exchanged by buyers and sellers with an open and understood system of value and time trade Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change. The philosophes ( French for Philosophers ' were a group of intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. From this point on, thinkers and writers were held to be free to pursue the truth in whatever form, without the threat of sanction for violating established ideas.

With the end of the Second World War and the rise of post-modernity, these same features came to be regarded as liabilities - excessive specialization, failure to heed traditional wisdom or provide for unintended consequences, and the romanticization of Enlightenment figures - such as the Founding Fathers of the United States, prompted a backlash against both Science and Enlightenment based dogma in general. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Postmodernity (also spelled post-modernity or the pejorative postmodern condition) is generally used to describe the economic and/or cultural state or condition Unintended consequences are outcomes that are not (or not limited to what the actor intended in a particular situation Founding Fathers are persons instrumental in the establishment of an Institution, usually a political institution especially those connected to the origination of its Ideals Philosophers such as Michel Foucault are often understood as arguing that the Age of Reason had to construct a vision of unreason as being demonic and subhuman, and therefore evil and befouling, whence by analogy to argue that rationalism in the modern period is, likewise, a construction. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. In their book, Dialectic of Enlightenment, Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno wrote a critique of what they perceived as the contradictions of Enlightenment thought: Enlightenment was seen as being at once liberatory and (through the domination of instrumental rationality) tending towards totalitarianism. Dialectic of Enlightenment (German Dialektik der Aufklärung) is the core text of Critical Theory explaining the socio-psychological status Max Horkheimer (February 14 1895 &ndash July 7 1973 was a German Philosopher and Sociologist, and a founder and guiding thinker of Critical Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno ( September 11, 1903 &ndash August 6, 1969) was a German -born international sociologist Two views of instrumental rationality can be discerned in modern philosophy one view comes from Social philosophy and Critical theory, another comes from Natural Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private

Yet other leading intellectuals, such as Noam Chomsky, see a natural evolution, using the term loosely, from early Enlightenment thinking to other forms of social analysis, specifically from The Enlightenment to liberalism, anarchism and socialism. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The relationship between these different schools of thought, Chomsky and others point out, can be seen in the works of von Humboldt, Kropotkin, Bakunin and Marx, among others. Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin ( - July 1 1876) was a well-known Russian Revolutionary and theorist of Collectivist anarchism. No brief summary can do justice to the diversity of enlightened thought in eighteenth-century Europe. Because it was an attitude rather than a set of shared beliefs, there are many contradictory trains to follow. In his famous essay "What is Enlightenment?" (1784), Immanuel Kant described it simply as freedom to use one's own intelligence. For the contemporary spiritual magazine see What Is Enlightenment?. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg ^[12]

Important figures

• Baruch Spinoza (1632–1672) Dutch, philosopher who is considered to have laid the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21,
• Balthasar Bekker (1634–1698) Dutch, a key figure in the Early Enlightenment. Balthasar Bekker ( March 20 1634 - June 11 1698) Dutch divine and author of philosophical and theological works In his book De Philosophia Cartesiana (1668) Bekker argued that theology and philosophy each had their separate terrain and that Nature can no more be explained from Scripture than can theological truth be deduced from Nature.
• Robert Hooke (1635–1703) English, probably the leading experimenter of his age, Curator of Experiments for the Royal Society. Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the Performed the work which quantified such concepts as Boyle's Law and the inverse-square nature of gravitation, father of the science of microscopy. Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle-Mariotte law) is one of several Gas laws and a special case of the Ideal gas law. Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects
• Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783) French. Mathematician and physicist, one of the editors of Encyclopédie.
• Thomas Abbt (1738–1766) German. Thomas Abbt ( 25 November 1738 3 November 1766) was a German Mathematician and writer Promoted what would later be called Nationalism in Vom Tode für's Vaterland (On dying for one's nation). The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation
• Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) French. Pierre Bayle ( November 18, 1647 December 28, 1706) was a French Philosopher and writer Literary critic known for Nouvelles de la république des lettres and Dictionnaire historique et critique.
• G.L. Buffon (1707–1788) French. Georges-Louis Leclerc fr Comte de Buffon ( September 7, 1707 April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician biologist Author of L'Histoire Naturelle who considered Natural Selection and the similarities between humans and apes. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of
• James Burnett Lord Monboddo Scottish. James Burnett Lord Monboddo ( October 25, 1714 - May 26, 1799) was a Scottish Judge, scholar of language evolution and Philosopher, jurist, pre-evolutionary thinker and contributor to linguistic evolution. JURIST is an online legal news service hosted by the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, written by founder Professor Bernard Hibbitts and a staff of more than eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 See Scottish Enlightenment
• James Boswell (1740–1795) Scottish. The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments James Boswell 9th Laird of Auchinleck ( October 29, 1740 - May 19, 1795) was a lawyer diarist and Author born in Edinburgh Biographer of Samuel Johnson, helped established the norms for writing Biography in general. Samuel Johnson (often referred to as Dr Johnson) (18 September A biography (from the Greek words bíos (βίος meaning "life" and gráphein (γράφειν meaning "to write" is an account
• Edmund Burke (1729–1797) Irish. Edmund Burke ( 12 January, 1729 9 July, 1797) was an Irish statesman author orator Political theorist, and Parliamentarian and political philosopher, best known for pragmatism, considered important to both liberal and conservative thinking. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined
• Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) French. Philosopher, mathematician, and early political scientist who devised the concept of a Condorcet method.
• Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) French. Paul-Henri Thiry baron d'Holbach ( 1723 – 1789) was a French - German Author, Philosopher and Encyclopedist. Author, encyclopaedist and Europe's first outspoken atheist. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Atheism Roused much controversy over his criticism of religion as a whole in his work The System of Nature. The System of Nature ( Système de la Nature) is a philosophical book by Baron d'Holbach (Paul Henri Thiry 1723-1789
• Denis Diderot (1713–1784) French. Denis Diderot ( October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French Philosopher and writer Founder of the Encyclopédie, speculated on free will and attachment to material objects, contributed to the theory of literature. The question of free will
• Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801): Polish. Ignacy Krasicki (February 3 1735 March 14 1801 from 1795 Archbishop of Gniezno (thus Primate of Poland) was Poland 's leading Enlightenment Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Leading poet of the Polish Enlightenment, hailed by contemporaries as "the Prince of Poets. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later than in the Western Europe, as Polish Bourgeoisie was weaker and Szlachta " After the 1764 election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as King of Poland, Krasicki became the new King's confidant and chaplain. Stanisław II August Poniatowski (born Count Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski; January 17 1732 – February 12 1798 was the last King Poland, or at least its nucleus was ruled at various times either by książęta (Dukes(ca He participated in the King's famous "Thursday dinners" and co-founded the Monitor, the preeminent periodical of the Polish Enlightenment, sponsored by the King. The Thursday Dinners (obiady czwartkowe were meetings of artists intellectuals and statesmen held by the last King of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski in Monitor was the first newspaper in Poland, printed from 1765 to 1785, during the times of the Polish Enlightenment. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Poland were developed later than in the Western Europe, as Polish Bourgeoisie was weaker and Szlachta He is remembered especially for his Fables and Parables. Fables and Parables ( Bajki i przypowieści, 1779 by Ignacy Krasicki, is a noted work in a long international tradition of fable-writing that
• Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro (1676–1764) Spanish, was the most prominent promoter of the critical empiricist attitude at the dawn of the Spanish Enlightenment. Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro ( Casdemiro, Galicia, 8 October 1676 Oviedo, Asturias, 26 September See also the portuguese Martín Sarmiento. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.
• Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) American. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Statesman, scientist, political philosopher, pragmatic deist, author. As a philosopher known for his writings on nationality, economic matters, aphorisms published in Poor Richard's Almanac and polemics in favour of American Independence. Involved with writing the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then
• Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) English. Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. Historian best known for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (known popularly as The History) was written by English Historian
• Johann Gottfried von Herder German. Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary Theologian and Linguist. Proposed that language determines thought, introduced concepts of ethnic study and nationalism, influential on later Romantic thinkers. Early supporter of democracy and republican self rule. Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization.
• David Hume Scottish. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Historian, philosopher and economist. Best known for his empiricism and scientific scepticism, advanced doctrines of naturalism and material causes. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism ( also spelled scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific or practical Philosophical naturalism has been described in various ways In its broadest and strongest sense naturalism is the metaphysical position that "nature is all there is Influenced Kant and Adam Smith.
• Thomas Reid (1710-1796) Scottish. Thomas Reid ( April 26, 1710 – October 7, 1796) Scottish Philosopher, and a contemporary of David Hume, was Presbyterian minister and Philosopher. Contributed greatly to the idea of Common-Sense philosophy and was Hume's most famous contemporary critic. Best known for his An Inquiry Into The Human Mind. Heavily influenced William James.
• Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) German. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Philosopher and physicist. Established critical philosophy on a systematic basis, proposed a material theory for the origin of the solar system, wrote on ethics and morals. Prescribed a politics of Enlightenment in What is Enlightenment? (1784). For the contemporary spiritual magazine see What Is Enlightenment?. Influenced by Hume and Isaac Newton. Important figure in German Idealism, and important to the work of Fichte and Hegel. Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher
• Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) American. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Statesman, political philosopher, educator, deist. As a philosopher best known for the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and his interpretation of the United States Constitution (1787) which he pursued as president. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. Argued for natural rights as the basis of all states, argued that violation of these rights negates the contract which bind a people to their rulers and that therefore there is an inherent "Right to Revolution. "
• Joseph-Alexandre-Victor Hupay de Fuveau,(1746-1818), writer and philosopher who had used for the first time in 1785 the word "communism" in a doctrinal sense. Joseph Alexandre Victor d'Hupay ( La Tour-d'Aigues, 1746 - Fuveau, 1818 was a French writer and philosopher Year 1746 ( MDCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1818 ( MDCCCXVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common
• Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830) German who founded the Order of the Illuminati. Johann Adam Weishaupt ( February 6, 1748 in Ingolstadt – November 18, 1830 in Gotha) was a German philosopher
• Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) Polish. Life After studying at the Kraków Academy (the later Jagiellonian University) he took holy orders then spent time in Vienna and Italy where He was active in the Commission for National Education and the Society for Elementary Textbooks, and reformed the Kraków Academy, of which he was rector in 1783–86. The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej abbreviated KEN) was the central educational authority in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet He co-authored the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's Constitution of May 3, 1791, and founded the Assembly of Friends of the Government Constitution to assist in the document's implementation. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as
• Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781) German. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 22 January, 1729 15 February, 1781) was a German Writer, Philosopher, Dramatist Dramatist, critic, political philosopher. Created theatre in the German language, began reappraisal of Shakespeare to being a central figure, and the importance of classical dramatic norms as being crucial to good dramatic writing, theorized that the centre of political and cultural life is the middle class.
• Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German founder of art-history, who emphasised the mimetic or imitative function in art and laid important foundations to German classical idealism of the Enlightenment. Johann Joachim Winckelmann ( December 9, 1717 - June 8, 1768) a German Art historian and Archaeologist, The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as
• John Locke (1632–1704) English Philosopher. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Important empiricist who expanded and extended the work of Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes. Seminal thinker in the realm of the relationship between the state and the individual, the contractual basis of the state and the rule of law. Argued for personal liberty with respect to property. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual
• Leandro Fernández de Moratín (1760–1828) Spanish. Leandro Fernández de Moratín (March 10 1760 Madrid &mdashJune 21 1828 Paris) was a Spanish dramatist translator and neoclassical poet Dramatist and translator, support of republicanism and free thinking. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty Transitional figure to Romanticism.
• Montesquieu (1689–1755) French political thinker. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions all over the world.
• Nikolay Novikov (1744–1818) Russian. For the Russian diplomat see Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov. Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov (Никола́й Ива́нович Новико́в ( -) Philanthropist and journalist who sought to raise the culture of Russian readers and publicly argued with the Empress. See Russian Enlightenment for other prominent figures. The Russian Age of Enlightenment was a period in the eighteenth century in which the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences
• Thomas Paine (1737–1809) English/American. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Pamphleteer, Deist, and polemicist, most famous for Common Sense attacking England's domination of the colonies in America. Common sense (or when used attributively as an Adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical) based on a strict construction The pamphlet was key in fomenting the American Revolution. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" Also wrote The Age of Reason which remains one of the most persuasive critiques of the Bible ever written, his writings (mainly Age of Reason and Rights of Man) made Americans study their religion, their behaviors, and the ruling hierarchy. The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American Rights of Man (1787 by Thomas Paine, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people their natural rights His work "The Rights of Man" was written in defense of the French Revolution and is the classic example up of the Enlightenment arguments in favor of classical liberalism.
• Francois Quesney (1694–1774) French economist of the Physiocratic school. François Quesnay ( June 4, 1694 - December 16, 1774) was a French Economist of the Physiocratic school He also practiced surgery.
• Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos ( 5 January, 1744 - 27 November, 1811) Spanish neoclassical statesman author philosopher and main Main figure of the Spanish Enlightenment. Preeminent statesman.
• Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) Natural philosopher and theologian whose search for the operation of the soul in the body led him to construct a detailed metaphysical model for spiritual-natural causation. (born Emanuel Swedberg; February 8 1688–March 29 1772 was a Swedish Scientist, Philosopher, Christian mystic, and Theologian
• French Encyclopédistes
• François-Marie Arouet(pen name Voltaire) (1694–1778) French Enlightenment writer, essayist, deist and philosopher. The Encyclopédistes were a group of 18th century writers in France who compiled the Encyclopédie edited by Denis Diderot and François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French This article is an abbreviated list of Essayists - individuals notable for writing essays on various topics Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language He wrote several books, the most famous of which is Dictionnaire Philosophique , in which he argued that organized religion is pernicious. The Dictionnaire philosophique ( Philosophical Dictionary) is an Encyclopedic dictionary published by Voltaire in 1764 He was the Enlightenment's most vigorous antireligious polemicist, as well as being a highly well known advocate of intellectual freedom.
• Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal (1699-1782) Portuguese statesman notable for his swift and competent leadership in the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo 1st Count of Oeiras 1st Marquis of Pombal (in Portuguese, Marquês de Pombal, pron He also implemented sweeping economic policies to regulate commercial activity and standardize quality throughout the country. The term Pombaline is used to describe not only his tenure, but also the architectural style which formed after the great earthquake.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau Swiss political philosopher. Argued that the basis of morality was conscience, rather than reason, as most other philosophers argued. He wrote Du Contrat Social, in which Rousseau claims that citizens of a state must take part in creating a 'social contract' laying out the state's ground rules in order to found an ideal society in which they are free from arbitrary power. The Social Contract Or Principles of Political Right (1762 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, is the book in which Rousseau theorized about Social contracts His rejection of reason in favor of the "Noble Savage" and his idealizing of ages past make him truly fit more into the romantic philosophical school, which was a reaction against the enlightenment. He largely rejected the individualism inherent in classical liberalism, arguing that the general will overrides the will of the individual.
• Adam Smith (1723–1790) Scottish economist and philosopher. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. He wrote The Wealth of Nations, in which he argued that wealth was not money in itself, but wealth was derived from the added value in manufactured items produced by both invested capital and labor. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the Magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith. He is sometimes considered to be the founding father of the Laissez-faire economic theory, but in fact argues for some degree of government control in order to maintain equity. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do”
• Gottfried Leibniz
• Christian Wolff (1679-1754)"German" Co-founder of the German Enlightenment. Christian Wolff may refer to Christian Wolff (philosopher (1679-1754 German philosopher and mathematician Christian Wolff (composer
• Helvétius
• Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle
• Olympe de Gouges
• Cesare Beccaria
• Sir Isaac Newton Founder of modern physics and inventor of calculus. Claude Adrien Helvétius (26 February 1715&ndash26 December 1771 was a French Philosopher and Litterateur. Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle, also referred to as Bernard le Bouyer de Fontenelle ( 11 February 1657 &ndash 9 January 1757) was Olympe de Gouges ( May 7, 1748 – November 3, 1793) born Marie Gouze, was a playwright and political activist whose Feminist Beccaria redirects here This article is about the philosopher and politician Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements
• John Wilkes
• Antoine Lavoisier
• Mikhail Lomonosov
• Mikhailo Shcherbatov
• Ekaterina Dashkova
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) British writer, philosopher, and feminist. John Wilkes ( 17 October 1725 – 26 December 1797) was an English radical, journalist and politician Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (Михаи́л Васи́льевич Ломоно́сов () was a Russian Polymath, scientist Prince Mikhailo Mikhailovich Shcherbatov (Михаил Михайлович Щербатов ( July 22, 1733 - December 12, 1790) was a Princess Yekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova (Екатери́на Рома́новна Воронцо́ва-Да́шкова ( March 17, 1743 – January Mary Wollstonecraft (ˈwʊlstənkrɑːft 27 April 1759 – 10 September
• Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) English philosopher, who wrote Leviathan, a key text in political philosophy. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation Leviathan ( is a Biblical Sea monster referred to in the Old Testament ( Psalm 74:13-14 Job 41 Isaiah 271
• Alexis de Tocqueville
• Carl Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is closely identified with Enlightenment values, progressing from Sturm und Drang and participating with Schiller in the movement of Weimar Classicism. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller krɪstɔf friːtʁɪç fɔn ʃɪləʁ/ʃɪlɐ (10 November 1759 9 May 1805 was a German Poet, Philosopher Weimar Classicism ( German “ Weimarer Klassik ” and “ Weimarer Klassizismus ” is a cultural and Literary movement of Europe

See also

• Counter-Enlightenment
• Enlightened absolutism
• Humanism
• Secularism
• Higher criticism
• Deism
• Intellectualism
• Anti-intellectualism

References

Further reading

• Bronner, Stephen Eric. Stephen Eric Bronner (born 19 August 1949) is a noted political philosopher and Professor (II of Political Science, Comparative Literature Interpreting the Enlightenment: Metaphysics, Critique, and Politics, 2004
• Bronner, Stephen Eric. Stephen Eric Bronner (born 19 August 1949) is a noted political philosopher and Professor (II of Political Science, Comparative Literature The Great Divide: The Enlightenment and its Critics
• Brown, Stuart, (ed. ). British Philosophy in the Page of Enlightenment 2002
• Buchan, James. James Buchan, born June 11, 1954, is a British novelist and journalist Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh's Moment of the Mind 2003
• Cassirer, Ernst. Ernst Cassirer ( July 28, 1874 &ndash April 13, 1945) was a German Jewish Philosopher. The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, Princeton University Press 1979
• Campbell, R. s. and Skinner, A. S. , (eds. ) The Origins and Nature of the Scottish Enlightenment, Edinburgh, 1982
• Dieterle, Bernard and Engel, Manfred (eds. ). The Dream and the Enlightenment / Le Rêve et les Lumières. Paris: Honoré Champion 2003, ISBN 2-7453-0672-3.
• Dupre, Louis. Louis Dupre is a Catholic Phenomenologist and Religious philosopher. The Enlightenment & the Intellctural Foundations of Modern Culture 2004
• Foucault, Michel. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. What is Enlightenment?
• Gay, Peter. Peter Gay (born June 20, 1923) is a Jewish American historian of the Social history of ideas born as Peter Joachim Fröhlich The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996
• Herman, Arthur. How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of how Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World and Everything in It 2001
• Hill, Jonathan. Faith in the Page of Reason, Lion/Intervarsity Press 2004
• Himmelfarb, Gertrude. Gertrude Himmelfarb (born August 8 1922) also known as Bea Kristol, is an American Historian known for her studies of the Intellectual The Roads to Modernity: The British, French, and American Enlightenments, 2004
• Hulluing, Mark. Autocritique of Enlightenment: Rousseau and the Philosophes 1994
• Jacob, Margaret Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 2000
• Kors, Alan Charles (ed. Alan Charles Kors is an intellectual historian specializing in French intellectual history of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ). Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment. 4 volumes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003
• Melamed, Yitzhak Y. Salomon Maimon and the Rise of Spinozism in German Idealism, Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 42, Issue 1
• Munck, Thomas. Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721–1794
• Porter, Roy. Roy Porter ( 31 December 1946 &mdash 3 March 2002) was a British Historian noted for his work on the History of medicine The Enlightenment 1999
• Redkop, Benjamin. The Enlightenment and Community, 1999
• Greensides F, Hyland P, Gomez O (ed. ). "The Enlightment" 2002

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