This article discusses systems of slavery within Africa, the history and effects of the slavery trade upon Africa. And also Maafa. The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Swahili word meaning disaster terrible occurrence or See Atlantic slave trade for the trans-Atlantic trade, and Arab slave trade for the Trans-Saharan trade. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such See Slavery in modern Africa for the current status of slavery on the African continent. Slavery in Africa continues today Slavery existed in Africa before the arrival of Europeans - as did a slave trade that exported millions

The slave trade in Africa existed for thousands of years. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The first main route passed through the Sahara, tying in to the Arab slave trade. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such After the European Age of Exploration, African slaves became part of the Atlantic slave trade, from which comes the modern, Western conception of slavery as an institution of African-descended slaves and non-African slave owners. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Despite its illegality, slavery continues in some parts of the world, including Africa. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another

Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs Quote:"The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings " He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"^[1]

Contents 1 Slavery within Africa 1.1 Slavery in Ethiopia 1.2 Slavery in Somalia 1.3 Slavery in North Africa 2 Slaves taken from Africa 2.1 Trans Saharan trade 2.2 Indian Ocean trade 2.3 Atlantic Ocean trade 3 Source of slaves 4 Effects 4.1 Effect on the economy of Africa 4.2 Effects on Europe’s economy 4.3 Demographics 4.4 Legacy of racism 5 Abolition 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Further reading 9 External links

Slavery within Africa

In most African societies, there was very little difference between the free peasants and the feudal vassal peasants. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Trans-Saharan trade is trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. Vassals of the Songhay Empire were used primarily in agriculture; they paid tribute to their masters in crop and service but they were slightly restricted in custom and convenience. The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire was a pre-colonial African state of west Africa. These non-free people were more an occupational caste, as their bondage was relative. Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will ^[2].

There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana and the Yoruba of Nigeria had economies largely depending on the trade. Ashanti, or Asante, are a major Ethnic group of Ashanti Region in Ghana. The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast to the west Burkina Faso to the north Togo to the Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans. The Imbangala or Mbangala were 17th century groups of Angolan warriors and marauders whom founded the kingdom of Kasanje. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central The Nyamwezi (originally and also Wanyamwezi) are the second-largest of over 120 ethnic groups in Tanzania. Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya Extenuating circumstances demanding exploration are the tremendous efforts European officials in Africa used to install rulers agreeable to their interests. They would actively favor one African group against another to deliberately ignite chaos and continue their slaving activities. ^[3].

"Slavery", as it is often referred to by people, in African cultures was generally more like indentured servitude: "slaves" were not made to be chattel of other men, nor enslaved for life. An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to African "slaves" were paid wages and were able to accumulate property. They often bought their own freedom and could then achieve social promotion -just as freedman in ancient Rome- some even rose to the status of kings (e. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC g. Jaja of Opobo and Sunni Ali Ber). Sonni Ali, also known as Sunni Ali Ber or "Sunni Ali" who Reigned from about 1464 to 1492 was the first great king of the Songhai Empire, located Similar arguments were used by Western slave owners during the time of abolition, for example by John Wedderburn in Wedderburn v. Knight, the case that ended legal recognition of slavery in Scotland in 1776. James (c 1495 &ndash 1533 John (c 1505 &ndash 1556 and Robert Wedderburn (c Slavery at common law refers to the legal status of Slavery and the Slave trade under the system of Law used in England and adopted by its former colonies Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Regardless of the legal options open to slave owners, rational cost-earning calculation and/or voluntary adoption of moral restraints often tended to mitigate (except with traders, who preferred to weed out the worthless weak individuals) the actual fate of slaves throughout history.

In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. The Senegambia Confederation was a loose Confederation between the West African countries of Senegal and its neighbour The Gambia, which is almost In early Islamic states of the western Sudan, including Ghana (750-1076), Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275-1591), about a third of the population were slaves. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire (existed c 750 - 1076) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, Western Mali The Mali Empire or Manding Empire or Manden Kurufa was a Medieval West African civilization of the Mandinka from c The Bamana Empire (also Bambara Empire or Ségou Empire) was a large pre-colonial West African state based at Ségou, now in Mali The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire was a pre-colonial African state of west Africa. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the population consisted of slaves. Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. In the 19th century at least half the population was enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the lower Niger, the Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola. The Duala (or Douala) are an Ethnic group of Cameroon. They primarily inhabit the littoral region to the coast and form a portion of the Sawa The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. The Igbo [iɡɓo] ( Igbo: Igbo, sometimes Nd'Igbo) sometimes referred to (usually formerly as the Ibo, Eboe, Ebo The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles The Kingdom of Kongo (1400 – 1914 ( Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo) was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what The Chokwe are an Ethnic group of Central Africa whose ancestry can perhaps be traced to Mbundu and Mbuti Pygmies. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Among the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves. Ashanti, or Asante, are a major Ethnic group of Ashanti Region in Ghana. The Yoruba (Yo•row•ba ( Yorùbá in Yoruba Orthography) are one of the largest ethno-linguistic or Ethnic groups in West Africa The population of the Kanem (1600–1800) was about a third-slave. The Kanem Empire (700 - 1376 was located in the present countries of Chad and Libya. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu (1580–1890). The Bornu Empire (1396-1893 was a medieval African state of Niger from 1389 to 1893 Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The Fulani War of 1804 - 1810, also known as the Fulani Jihad or Jihad of Usman dan Fodio, was a military conquest in present day Nigeria The population of the Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in the northern Nigeria and Cameroon was half-slave in the 19th century. Sokoto is a city located in the extreme northwest of Nigeria, near to where the Sokoto River and Rima River meet The Hausa are a Sahelian people chiefly located in the West African regions of northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of Arab-Swahili Zanzibar was enslaved. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Swahili are a people and culture found on the coast of East Africa, mainly the coastal regions and the islands of Kenya and Tanzania, and north Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Roughly half the population of Madagascar was enslaved. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern ^{[4][5][6][7][8][9]}

Slavery in Ethiopia

Ethiopian slavery was essentially domestic. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Slaves thus served in the houses of their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for productive purposes, slaves were thus regarded as second-class members of their owners' family^[10], and were fed, clothed and protected. Women were taken as sex slaves. Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery They generally roamed around freely and conducted business as free people. They had complete freedom of religion and culture. ^[11] First attempt to abolish slavery was made by Emperor Tewodros II (r. Tewodros II ( Ge'ez ቴዎድሮስ also known as Theodore II) (c 1855-1868)^[12], although slave trade was not abolished completely until 1923 with Ethiopia's ascension to the League of Nations. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 ^[13] Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2,000,000 slaves in the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million. ^[14] Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the Italian invasion in October 1935, when was abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces. ^[15] In response to pressure by Western Allies of World War II Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude after regained its independence in 1942. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. ^[16][17] On August 26, 1942 Haile Selassie issued a proclamation outlawing slavery. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Haile Selassie I ( Ge'ez: am ኃይለ፡ ሥላሴ "Power of the Trinity " 23 July 1892 &ndash 27 August 1975 born Tafari Makonnen, was ^[18]

Slavery in Somalia

The Bantus are the descendants of people from various ethnic groups in what is modern-day Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique who were brought to Somalia as slaves in the 19th century. The Somali Bantu (also called Jareer or Gosha by ethnic Somalis are a minority ethnic group in Somalia, a country largely inhabited by ethnic Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya The Republic of Malawi (məˈlɑːwi or; formerly Nyasaland) is in southern Africa. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar It is estimated that the Bantu in Somalia number around 600,000 out of a total population of over 11 million. Contrary to the Somali, who are for the most part nomadic herders, the Bantu are mainly sedentary farmers. Bantus have darker skin and are shorter and more muscular with broader features and kinkier hair than the Somalis. Somalis ( Soomaaliyeed, الصوماليون are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. During the Somali Civil War, many Bantu were evicted from their farms by various armed factions of Somali clans. The Somali Civil War is an armed conflict in Somalia that started in 1988 ^[19]

Slavery in North Africa

The medieval slave trade in Europe was mainly to the East and South: Byzantine Empire and the Muslim World were the destinations, Central and Eastern Europe an important source. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. ^[20][21] Slavery in medieval Europe was so common that the Roman Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it—or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands was prohibited at, for example, the Council of Koblenz in 922, the Council of London in 1102, and the Council of Armagh in 1171. Slavery in early Medieval Europe was relatively common It was widespread at the end of antiquity. The Council of London in 1102 was a Roman Catholic Church council of the church in England convened by Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury to debate and pass ^[22] Because of religious constraints, the slave trade was monopolised by Iberian Jews (known as Radhanites) who were able to transfer the slaves from pagan Central Europe through Christian Western Europe to Muslim countries in Al-Andalus and Africa. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Radhanites (also Radanites, Hebrew sing רדהני Radhani, pl Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[23] So many Slaves were enslaved for so many centuries that the very name 'slave' derived from their name; not only in English, but in other European languages and in Arabic. Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services ^[24]

Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another A soldier is a general English term that refers to a member of a land component of National Armed forces. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Over time they became a powerful military caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the from 1250-1517. Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Bahariyya المماليك البحرية) was a Mamluk Dynasty of mostly Kipchak White slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corp of troops eventually revolting in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty. White People is the second album by Handsome Boy Modeling School. This article deals with the various Ethnic groups inhabiting the Caucasus region The Burji dynasty المماليك البرجية ruled Egypt from 1382 until 1517 ^[25]

According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1. 25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim Pirates and Privateers that operated from North Africa, from The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Portugal, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by its inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This is a list of Islands in the Mediterranean Sea: By area By country Croatia Croatian islands Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Barbarossa ("Redbeard"), and his older brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis and Koca Murat Reis. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the Oruç Reis (also called Barbarossa or Redbeard) ( Turkish: Aruj or Oruç Reis, Arabic: عروج بربروس Turgut Reis ( 1485 - June 23, 1565) was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral as well as Bey of Turgut Reis ( 1485 - June 23, 1565) was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral as well as Bey of Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis (1487 &ndash c 1535 was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral as well as the Sanjak Bey (Provincial Governor of Rhodes Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis (1487 &ndash c 1535 was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral as well as the Sanjak Bey (Provincial Governor of Rhodes Kemal Reis (c 1451 &ndash 1511 was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral. Salih Reis (1488 ca - 1568 was a Turkish Privateer and Ottoman Admiral. Murat Reis the Elder (Koca Murat Reis was a Turkish privateer and Ottoman admiral ^[26][27]

In 1544, Khair ad Din captured the Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners in the process, and deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population. Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha ( Turkish: Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa or Hızır Hayreddin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the For the comune see Ischia (comune. For the part of the human hip see Ischium Ischia is a Volcanic Island in the As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Lipari ( Latin: Lipara; Ancient Greek: Meligunis; Italian: Lipari Sicilian: Lìpari is the largest of the Aeolian ^[28] In 1551, Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. Gozo ( Għawdex) is an Island of the Maltese archipelago in the Mediterranean Sea, the island is part of the Southern European Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab When pirates sacked Vieste in southern Italy in 1554 they took an 7,000 slaves. Vieste is a town and Comune in the Province of Foggia, in the Apulia region of southeast Italy. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and ransacked Bastia, taking 6000 prisoners. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily Bastia ( French & Corsican: Bastia) is a commune in the Haute-Corse department of France on the island In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured the town of Ciutadella, destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and carried off 3,000 survivors to Istanbul as slaves. Ciutadella de Menorca (official or just Ciutadella (common ( Ciudadela) is a Town and a Municipality on the western side of Minorca Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey ^[29] In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the province of Granada, Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the area like Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. Almuñécar is a municipality in the Spanish Autonomous Region of Andalusia on the Costa del Sol between Nerja ( Málaga) and Barbary pirates frequently attacked the Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being erected. The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean The threat was so severe that Formentera became uninhabited. Formentera is the smallest and southernmost Island of the Illes Pitiüses group (which includes Ibiza and Formentera and belongs to the Balearic Islands ^[30][31]

Sahrawi-Moorish society in Northwest Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some extent) stratified into several tribal castes, with the Hassane warrior tribes ruling and extracting tribute - horma - from the subservient Berber-descended znaga tribes. Northwest Africa or Northwestern Africa is a variably defined Region of North Africa. The Hassane is a name for the traditionally dominant warrior Tribes of the Sahrawi - Moorish areas of present-day Mauritania and Western Sahara The horma was a tribute paid by subservient Tribes to their protectors in traditional Sahrawi - Moorish society in today's Mauritania and Western Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. The Znaga or Zenaga tribes were at the bottom of Sahrawi - Moorish society in today's Mauritania and Western Sahara in North The so-called Haratin lower class, largely sedentary oasis-dwelling black people, have been considered natural slaves in Sahrawi-Moorish society. Haratin (also transliterated Haratins, Harratins or Haratine, etc singular Hartani) is a name for black oasis-dwellers in north western Africa In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse ^[32][33][34]

Slaves taken from Africa

Trans Saharan trade

Main article Arab slave trade

The very earliest external slave trade was the trans-Saharan slave trade. The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such Although there had long been some trading up the Nile River and very limited trading across the western desert, the transportation of large numbers of slaves did not become viable until camels were introduced from Arabia in the 10th century. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) By this point, a trans-Saharan trading network came into being to transport slaves north. Trans-Saharan trade is trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year. ^[35] Frequent intermarriages meant that the slaves were assimilated in North Africa. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. Unlike in the Americas, slaves in North Africa were mainly servants and soldiers rather than labourers, and a greater number of females than males were taken, who were often employed as servants for the women of harems. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America A domestic worker, domestic, servingman, servingwoman, or servant is one who works and often also lives within the employer's household Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking road building or any HAREM is the first evaluation contest of Named entity recognition (NER for Portuguese and its call for participation was announced in September 2004 ^[36] It was also not uncommon to turn male slaves, both African and European, into eunuchs to serve as guardians to the harems. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to HAREM is the first evaluation contest of Named entity recognition (NER for Portuguese and its call for participation was announced in September 2004 ^[37] The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission. Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif ( 1634? or 1645?-1727 reigned 1672-1727 (مولاي إسماعيل بن الشريف ابن النصر was the second ruler of the Moroccan "Blackguard" or "Antipaladin" can also refer to a particular Dungeons & Dragons prestige class. ^[38]

Indian Ocean trade

The trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean also has a long history beginning with the control of sea routes by Afro-Arab traders in the ninth century. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Afro-Arab (sometimes referred to as African Arab) refers to people who possess both Black African and Arab ancestry It is estimated that only a few thousand slaves were taken each year from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coast. They were sold throughout the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco Eventually, tens of thousands per year were being taken. ^[39]. The majority of the Arabs responsible for the slave trade in East Africa were blacks themselves. Afro-Arabs were Africans who had adopted Arab culture and language. ^[40]

David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade: "To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility. Dr David Livingstone (19 March 1813 &ndash 1 May 1873 was a British Congregationalist pioneer medical Missionary with the London Missionary Society . . . We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead. . . . We came upon a man dead from starvation. . . . The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves. " Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets of Zanzibar. Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the ^{[41][42][43][44]} Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar ^[45]

Some sources estimate that between 11 and 17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900. ^[46][47]

Atlantic Ocean trade

Main article Atlantic slave trade

The first Europeans to arrive on the coast of Guinea were the Portuguese; the first European to actually buy African slaves in the region of Guinea was Antão Gonçalves, a Portuguese explorer. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World Guinea is a traditional name for the region of Africa that lies along the Gulf of Guinea. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Antão Gonçalves was a 15th century Portuguese explorer and slave trader who was the first European to buy Africans as slaves from Originally interested in trading mainly for gold and spices, they set up colonies on the uninhabited islands of São Tomé. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive São Tomé ( Population 56166 in 2005) is the Capital city of São Tomé and Príncipe and is by far that nation's largest town In the 16th century the Portuguese settlers found that these volcanic islands were ideal for growing sugar. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Sugar growing is a labour-intensive undertaking and Portuguese settlers were difficult to attract due to the heat, lack of infrastructure, and hard life. To cultivate the sugar the Portuguese turned to large numbers of African slaves. Elmina Castle on the Gold Coast, originally built by African labor for the Portuguese in 1482 to control the gold trade, became an important depot for slaves that were to be transported to the New World. Elmina Castle was erected by the Portuguese in 1482 as São Jorge da Mina ( St This article is about the British colony in west Africa 1821-1957 The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. ^[48]

The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and laborers on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming death rate in the native population had spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 1512-1513). The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501. ^[49]

In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery. See also Antipope Nicholas V. Pope Nicholas V (Italian Niccolò V; November 15, 1397 &ndash March A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. Dum Diversas is a Papal bull issued on June 18 1452 by Pope Nicholas V, that is credited with "ushering in the West African slave trade Afonso V (ɐˈfõsu in Portuguese; English Alphonzo) or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese the African ( Port This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. Romanus Pontifex is a papal bull written January 8 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V of Portugal. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism. However Pope Eugene IV in his bull, Sicut Dudum of 1435 had condemned the enslavement of the black inhabitants of the Canary Islands. Pope Eugene IV (1383 &ndash February 23, 1447) born Gabriele Condulmer, was Pope from March 3, 1431, to his death Sicut Dudum is a Papal bull promulgated by Pope Eugene IV in Florence on January 13, 1435, about the enslaving of black natives in The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish Pope Paul III in 1537 issued an additional Bull, Sublimis Deus, declaring that all peoples, even those outside the faith should not be deprived of their liberty. Pope Paul III ( February 29, 1468 &ndash November 10, 1549) born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Sublimus Dei (also seen as Sublimus Deus and Sublimis Deus) is a Papal bull promulgated by Pope Paul III on May 29 The followers of the church of England and Protestants did not use the papal bulls as a justification for their involvement in slavery.

Increasing penetration into the Americas by the Portuguese created more demand for labour in Brazil--primarily for farming and mining. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Slave-based economies quickly spread to the Caribbean and the southern portion of what is today the United States, where Dutch traders brought the first African slaves in 1620. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the These areas all developed an insatiable demand for slaves. As European nations grew more powerful, especially Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands, they began vying for control of the African slave trade, with little effect on the local African and Arab trading. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Great Britain's existing colonies in the Lesser Antilles and their effective naval control of the Mid Atlantic forced other countries to abandon their enterprises due to inefficiency in cost. The English crown provided a charter giving the Royal African Company monopoly over the African slave routes until 1712. The Royal African Company was a slaving company set up by the Stuart family and London merchants once the former retook the English throne in ^[50]

The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms against weaker African tribes and peoples. These mass slavers included the Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong Empire, Kingdom of Benin, Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro, Kingdom of Koya, Kingdom of Khasso, Kingdom of Kaabu, Fante Confederacy, Ashanti Confederacy, and the kingdom of Dahomey. The Oyo Empire (c 1400 - 1835 was a West African empire of what is today western Nigeria. The Yoruba (Yo•row•ba ( Yorùbá in Yoruba Orthography) are one of the largest ethno-linguistic or Ethnic groups in West Africa The Kong Empire (1710-1895 also known as the Wattara Empire or Ouattara Empire for its founder was a pre-colonial African state centered in north eastern Cote The Benin Empire or Edo Empire (1440-1897 was a large pre-colonial African state of modern Nigeria. The Kingdom of Fouta Djallon (also the Kingdom of Fuuta Jallon and the Timbo Almamate) (1725-1896 was a pre-colonial West African state based in the The Kingdom of Fouta Tooro or the Kingdom of Fuua Tooro (1776-1891 was a pre-colonial West African state of the Fula-speaking people ( Fulɓe The Kingdom of Koya or Koya Temne or Temne Kingdom (1505-1896 was a pre-colonial African state in the north of present-day Sierra Leone. Khasso or Xaaso was a West African kingdom of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the The Kingdom of Kaabu (ver Gabu, Ngabou or N’Gabu') (1537-1867 was a Mandinka Kingdom of Senegambia (centered on modern northeastern The Fante Confederacy can refer either to the loose alliance of the Fante states in existence at least since the eighteenth century or it can refer to the briefly lived Confederation Ashanti, or Asante, are a major Ethnic group of Ashanti Region in Ghana. Europeans rarely entered the interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance. Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions ^[51][52]

Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese people (os Portugueses literally the Portuguese) are the Ethnic group or Nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west The Kingdom of Kongo (1400 – 1914 ( Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo) was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what Despite its establishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. Nzinga Mvemba (c 1456 - 1542 or 1543 also known as King Afonso I was a ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo in the first half of the 16th century When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote letters to the King João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice. John III ( Portuguese: João III ʒuˈɐ̃ũ ( June 7, 1502 &ndash June 11, 1557) nicknamed o Piedoso ^[53]

The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who otherwise would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. Every year in the Kingdom of Dahomey, a huge festival in honor of the ancestors was organized called the annual "customs". As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples. ^[54][55][56] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. The Bamana Empire (also Bambara Empire or Ségou Empire) was a large pre-colonial West African state based at Ségou, now in Mali Khasso or Xaaso was a West African kingdom of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries occupying territory in what is today Senegal and the The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history A family's status was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose of taking more captives. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. ^[57] Benin grew increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe; slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Benin Empire or Edo Empire (1440-1897 was a large pre-colonial African state of modern Nigeria. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast". ^[58]

King Gezo of Dahomey said in 1840's:

The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…^[59]

In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:

We think this trade must go on. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself. ^[60]

Source of slaves

All three slave-trading routes tapped into local trading patterns. Europeans or Arabs in Africa very rarely mounted expeditions to capture slaves. Lack of people and the prevalence of disease prevented any widespread gathering of slaves by Europeans and other non-Africans. Local rulers were very rarely open to allowing groups of armed foreigners to enter their lands. ^[61] It was far easier and more common to make use of existing African middlemen and slave traders. Slavery has been present in Africa for millennia, and still is today even with children, though some historians prefer to describe African slavery as feudalism, arguing it was more like the serfdom system that controlled the peasantry of Western Europe during the Middle Ages or Russia into the 19th century than slavery as it was practiced in the Americas. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar ^[62]

The slaves came from many different sources. About half came from the societies that sold them. These might be criminals, heretics, the mentally ill, the indebted and any others that had fallen out of favour with the rulers. In the sociological field, crime is the breach of a rule or Law for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a Punishment Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Debt is that which is owed usually referencing Assets owed but the term can cover other obligations Little is known about the details of theses practices before the arrival of Europeans, and so it is difficult to tell if the number of people considered as undesirables was artificially increased to provide more slaves for export. It is believed that capital punishment in the region nearly disappeared since prisoners became far too valuable to dispose of in such a way. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. ^[63]

Another source of slaves, comprising about half the total, came from military conquests of other states or tribes. A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use It has long been contended that the slave trade greatly increased violence and warfare in the region due to the pursuit of slaves, but it is hard to provide evidence to prove this; tribal warfare was certainly common even before slave hunting had added such an extra inducement. Endemic warfare is the state of continual low-threshold Warfare in a tribal Warrior society ^[64]

For the Atlantic slave trade, captives purchased from slave dealers in West African regions known as the Slave Coast, Gold Coast, and Côte d'Ivoire were sold into slavery as a result of a defeat in warfare. The Slave Coast is the name of the coastal areas of present Togo, Benin (formerly Dahomey) and western Nigeria, a fertile region of coastal This article is about the British colony in west Africa 1821-1957 Côte d'Ivoire (ˌkoʊt divˈwɑː(r ' in English, kot diˈvwaʀ in French) or Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a In the Bight of Biafra near modern-day Senegal and Benin, some African kings sold their captives locally and later to European slave traders for goods such as metal cookware, rum, livestock, and seed grain. The Bight of Bonny (also known as the Bight of Biafra) is a bight off the West African coast in the easternmost part (beyond the Bight of Benin to the West Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. Benin (bə'nɪn officially the Republic of Benin, and also known as Benin Republic, is a country in Western Africa. Previous to the voyage, the victims were held in "slave castles" and deep pits where many died from multiple illnesses and malnutrition. Conditions were even worse in the Middle Passage across the Atlantic where up to a third of the slaves died en route. Middle Passage refers to the forcible passage of African people from Africa to the New World, as part of the Atlantic slave trade.

Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs Quote:"The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth). The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings " He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"^[65]

Effects

Effect on the economy of Africa

Few scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves, but the effect of the trade on African societies is much debated due to the apparent influx of capital to Africans. Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches Cowry, also sometimes spelled cowrie, plural always cowries, is the Common name for a group of small to large sea Snails marine Manillas are penannular (almost ring-like armlets mostly in Bronze or Copper, very rarely Gold, which served as a form of Money or Barter Proponents of the slave trade, such as Archibald Dalzel, argued that African societies were robust and not much affected by the ongoing trade. Archibald Dalzel (1740-1811 was a British adventurer and Governor of the Gold Coast (now Ghana) In the 19th century, European abolitionists, most prominently Dr. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies David Livingston, took the opposite view arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being severely harmed by the ongoing trade. David Livingston may refer to David Livingstone (1813–1873 Scottish Presbyterian pioneer medical missionary David Livingston (director This view continued with scholars until the 1960s and 70s such as Basil Davidson, who conceded it might have had some benefits while still acknowledging its largely negative impact on Africa. Basil Davidson (born 9 November 1914 in Bristol, England) is an acclaimed British Historian, writer and Africanist ^[66] Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c. Walter Rodney ( March 23, 1942 &ndash June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure 1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol.

Today, however, some scholars assert that slavery did not have a wholly disastrous effect on those left behind in Africa. ^[67] Slaves were an expensive commodity, and traders received a great deal in exchange for each slave. At the peak of the slave trade, it is said that hundreds of thousands of muskets, vast quantities of cloth, gunpowder and metals were being shipped to Guinea. Guinea's trade with Europe at the peak of the slave trade—which also included significant exports of gold and ivory—was some 3. 5 million pounds Sterling per year. By contrast, the trade of the United Kingdom, the economic superpower of the time, was about 14 million pounds per year over this same period of the late 18th century. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system As Patrick Manning has pointed out, the vast majority of items traded for slaves were common rather than luxury goods. Patrick Manning is the Andrew W Mellon Professor of World History at the University of Pittsburgh. Textiles, iron ore, currency, and salt were some of the most important commodities imported as a result of the slave trade, and these goods were spread within the entire society raising the general standard of living. ^[68] In contrast, other scholars find that the trade in slave had a detrimental effect on long-term economic growth and development. Although the evidence suggests a causal effect, the channel trough which slave trade affects subsequent economic growth and development is not clear. One likely explanation is that the slave trade impeded the formation of larger ethnic groups, causing ethnic fractionalization and weaking the formation of stable political structures. ^[69]

Effects on Europe’s economy

Eric Williams had attempted to show the contribution of Africans on the basis of profits from the slave trade and slavery, and the employment of those profits to finance Britain’s industrialization process. Eric Eustace Williams ( September 25, 1911 &ndash March 29, 1981) was the first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago He argues that the enslavement of Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European wealth is a result of slavery. However, he argued that by the time of its abolition it had lost its profitability and it was in Britain's economic interest to ban it. Seymour Dreshcer and Robert Antsey have both presented evidence that the slave trade remained profitable until the end, and that reasons other than economics led to its cessation. Joseph InikoPornri have shown elsewhere that the British slave trade was more profitable than the critics of Williams would want us to believe. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the ^[70]

A similar debate has taken place about other European nations. French slave trade was more profitable than alternative domestic investments and probably encouraged capital accumulation before the Industrial Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions ^[71]

Demographics

The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and debated issues. Tens of millions of people were removed from Africa via the slave trade, and what effect this had on Africa is an important question. Walter Rodney argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world, and largely explains that continent's continued poverty. Walter Rodney ( March 23, 1942 &ndash June 13, 1980) was a prominent Guyanese historian and political figure ^[72] He presents numbers that show that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney all other areas of the economy were disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries to pursue slaving and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the slaving itself.

Others have challenged this view. J. D. Fage compared the number effect on the continent as a whole. John Donnelly Fage (1921-2002 was a British Historian noted for his work on African history. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of emigration from Europe during this period. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. In the nineteenth century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken from Africa. ^[73]

Others have challenged this view. Joseph E. Inikori argues the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the introduction of modern medicines. ^[74] Shahadah also states that the trade was not only of demographic significance, in aggregate population losses but also in the profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure and reproductive and social development potential.

In addition, the majority of the slaves being taken to the Americas were male. So while the slave trade created an immediate drop in the population, its long term effects were less drastic. ^[2].

Legacy of racism

Maulana Karenga states that the effects of slavery where "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among people of today. Maulana Karenga (born Ronald McKinley Everett on July 14, 1941, and also known as Ron Everett) is an African American " . He cites that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility. ^[75]

Abolition

Beginning in the late 18th century, France was Europe's first country to abolish slavery, in 1794, but it was revived by Napoleon in 1802, and banned for good in 1848. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. In 1807 the British Parliament passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act, under which captains of slave ships could be stiffly fined for each slave transported. See also Atlantic slave trade, Abolitionism The Slave Trade Act (citation 47 Geo III Sess ^[76] This was later superseded by the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, which freed all slaves in the British Empire. Abolition was then extended to the rest of Europe. The 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade made slave trading piracy, punishable by death. The 1820 US Law on Slave Trade declared the trading of slaves by a U Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. ^[77] In 1827, Britain declares the slave trade piracy, punishable by death. The power of the Royal Navy was subsequently used to suppress the slave trade, and while some illegal trade, mostly with Brazil, continued, the Atlantic slave trade would be eradicated by the middle of the 19th century. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The West Africa Squadron was credited with capturing 1,600 slave ships between 1808 and 1860 and freeing 150,000 Africans who were aboard these ships. The West Africa Squadron, established in 1808 after the passing of the Slave Trade Act in 1807 was a unit of the Royal Navy that was involved in the suppression Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Year 1860 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year starting ^[78] Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against ‘the usurping King of Lagos’, deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. ^[79]

The Islamic trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trades continued, however, and even increased as new sources of slaves became available. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface In Caucasus, slavery was abolished after Russian conquest. This article deals with the various Ethnic groups inhabiting the Caucasus region The slave trade within Africa also increased. The British Navy could suppress much of the trade in the Indian Ocean, but the European powers could do little to affect the intra-continental trade. ^[80]

The continuing anti-slavery movement in Europe became an excuse and a casus belli for the European conquest and colonisation of much of the African continent. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies Casus belli is a Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war In the late 19th century, the Scramble for Africa saw the continent rapidly divided between Imperialistic Europeans, and an early but secondary focus of all colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. The word regime (occasionally spelled " régime " particularly in older texts refers to a set of conditions most often of a Political nature In response to this public pressure, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery is still very active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy. A wage is a compensation workers receive in exchange for their labor. Independent nations attempting to westernise or impress Europe sometimes cultivated an image of slavery suppression, even as they, in the case of Egypt, hired European soldiers like Samuel White Baker's expedition up the Nile. Sir Samuel White Baker, KCB, FRS, FRGS (b 8 June 1821 - † 30 December, 1893) was a British Slavery has never been eradicated in Africa, and it commonly appears in African states, such as Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, and Sudan, in places where law and order have collapsed. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. ^[81]. See also Slavery in modern Africa. Slavery in Africa continues today Slavery existed in Africa before the arrival of Europeans - as did a slave trade that exported millions

Although outlawed in nearly all countries today slavery is practiced in secret in many parts of the world. ^[82] There are an estimated 27 million victims of slavery worldwide. ^[83] In Mauritania alone up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as bonded labour. Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods ^[84][85] Slavery in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007. Slavery in Mauritania is an entrenched phenomenon the national government has repeatedly tried to abolish banning the practice in 1905 1981 and August 2007 ^[86] It is estimated that as many as 200,000 black Sudanese children and women have been taken into slavery in Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War. Since 1995 international rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and CASMAS have reported that slavery in Sudan is a common fate of captives in the The Second Sudanese Civil War (sometimes referred to as Anyanya II) started in 1983 although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil ^[87][88] In Niger, where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population are still slaves. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. ^[89][90]

See also

Atlantic slave trade Arab slave trade Barbary pirates Islam and slavery Slavery in Mauritania Slavery in Sudan Unfree labor Maafa Tippu Tip

Slavery in modern Africa Abolitionism History of slavery Slavery in ancient Rome History of slavery in the United States James Riley (Captain) white slaves in the Sahara Slavery Slave ship African Diaspora

Notes

Further reading

• Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery
• Fage, J. D. A History of Africa (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 ISBN 0-415-25247-4)
• Faragher, John Mack; Mari Jo Buhle, Daniel Czitrom, Susan H. Armitage (2004). Out of Many. Pearson Prentice Hall, p. Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher It is an Imprint of Pearson Education Inc 54. ISBN 0-13-182431-7.  
• Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery 1983
• The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation. (Review): An article from: Population and Development Review [HTML] (Digital) by Tukufu Zuberi
• Walter Rodney: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

External links

• Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
• Twentieth Century Solutions of the Abolition of Slavery
• African Holocaust African Slave trade and legacy
• Set All Free - Act to end slavery - British site commemorating 200 years since the passing of Abolition of the Slave Trade Act
• Rice N Peas - Interview with an Ex-Slave
• Scale of African slavery revealed
• Nigeria's 'respectable' slave trade
• Africa's trade in children
• The story of Africa: Slavery
• Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade - schools resource
• "The impact of the slave trade on Africa," Le Monde diplomatique

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