See also: Affirmative action in the United States, Reservation in India, and Numerus clausus

The term affirmative action describes policies aimed at a historically socio-politically non-dominant group (typically, minority men or women of all races) intended to promote access to education or employment. Affirmative action in the United States is intended to promote access to education employment or housing among certain designated groups (typically Minorities and Women Reservation in Indian law is a form of Affirmative action whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the public sector units union and state civil services Numerus clausus ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of Students who may study at a University Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Motivation for affirmative action is a desire to redress the effects of past and current discrimination that is regarded as unfair. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is It also serves to encourage public institutions such as universities, hospitals and police forces to be more representative of the population^[1]. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force

This is commonly achieved through targeted recruitment programs aimed at applicants from socio-politically disadvantaged groups. Recruitment refers to the process of sourcing screening and selecting people for a job at an Organization or firm or for a vacancy in a volunteer-based organization In some cases affirmative action involves giving preferential treatment to these groups. ^[2] Opponents of affirmative action policies argue that they are based on collectivism and merely another equal form of discrimination because they can result in qualified applicants being denied entry to higher education or employment because they belong to a particular social group (usually the historically socio-politically dominant group; typically majority races and men, regardless of social standing or financial need. Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ) They also argue that preferential treatment should be based upon current social and economical standing, not that of one's ancestors. Some opponents say affirmative action devalues the accomplishments of people who are chosen because of the social group they belong to rather than their qualifications. ^[3]

Contents 1 Opponents 2 Controversy 3 Implementation worldwide 4 See also 5 Notes and references 6 External links

Opponents

Some opponents of affirmative action call it reverse discrimination because affirmative action requires the very discrimination it is seeking to eliminate in order to work. This contradiction makes affirmative action counter-productive. It promotes prejudice by increasing resentment toward those who are the beneficiaries of affirmative action from those who have been adversely affected by the policy (such as poor white). (Read Thomas Sowell's Affirmative Action Around The World and Basic and Applied Economics) It also causes unprepared applicants to be accepted in highly demanding educational institutions or jobs which result in eventual failure. Thomas Sowell (born June 30, 1930) is an American Economist, social commentator and author of dozens of books (See, for example, Richard Sander's study of affirmative action in Law School, bar exam and eventual performance at law firms). Lastly, by lowering the bar, it denies those who strive for excellence on their own merit the sense of real achievement. (See, for example, Clarence Thomas' "My Grandfather's Son: A Memoir". Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American Jurist. He has been serving as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United ) Some argue that affirmative action itself has some merit when it is targeted to true cause of social deprivation such as poverty while race, ethnicity or gender based affirmative action is misguided. [3]

Some opponents claim that affirmative action is not necessary when looking at how past groups that suffered from extensive oppression like Asian, Jewish, Arab, Irish, Eastern European and Southern European Americans, all of whom are groups of people that were also discriminated against within society in the past and never received any benefits from an affirmative action system and have (they claim) done perfectly fine if not better than average in American society today. Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry. They include sub-ethnic groups such as Chinese Americans Filipino Americans Indian American Jews, or Jewish Americans An Arab American is a United States citizen or resident of Arab cultural and linguistic heritage and/or Identity whose ancestry traces back to any of various Irish Americans (Gael-Mheiriceánach are citizens of the United States who can claim ancestry originating in Ireland. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The term Southern Europe can have four definitions geographical political climatic phytogeographic A study has noted that on some campuses, such as the University of California, Berkeley where affirmative action was abolished by Proposition 209, Asian American students, who already face discrimination on college campuses, would be the predominant victims of a return to race-conscious admissions. The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley Proposition 209 was a 1996 California ballot proposition which amended the state constitution to prohibit public institutions from considering ^[4]. Efforts to repeal Proposition 209 and limit the number of Asians on campus resemble the anti-semitic Numerus Clauses once utilized by colleges and universities to reduce the number of Jews. Proposition 209 was a 1996 California ballot proposition which amended the state constitution to prohibit public institutions from considering Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry. They include sub-ethnic groups such as Chinese Americans Filipino Americans Indian American Jews, or Jewish Americans

Notable opponents include Ward Connerly of the American Civil Rights Institute, who has promoted and won a series of ballot initiatives in the states of California (California Proposition 209 (1996)), Washington (1998 - I-200), and Michigan (the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative - MCRI, or Proposal 2, 2006). Wardell Anthony Connerly (born June 15, 1939) is an African-American political Activist, businessman and former University of California Proposition 209 was a 1996 California ballot proposition which amended the state constitution to prohibit public institutions from considering The Michigan Civil Rights Initiative ( MCRI) or Proposal 2 (Michigan 06-2 was a Ballot initiative in the U California's initiative was co-authored by academics Tom Wood and Glynn Custred in the mid-1990s and was taken up by Connerly after he was appointed in 1994 by Governor Pete Wilson to the University of California Board of Regents. Each of the ballot initiatives have won, and Connerly plans what he calls a "Super-Tuesday" of five additional states in 2008.

Notable academicians such as Professor Carl Cohen of the University of Michigan, who was a supporter of Michigan's Proposal 2, have argued that the term "affirmative action" should be defined differently than "race preference," and that while socio-economically based or anti-discrimination types of affirmative action are permissible, those that give preference to individuals solely based on their race or gender should not be permitted. Carl Cohen is Professor of Philosophy at the Residential College of the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor Michigan, USA Cohen also helped find evidence in 1996 through the Freedom of Information Act that lead to the cases filed by Jennifer Gratz and Barbara Grutter against the University of Michigan for its undergraduate and law admissions policy - cases which were decided by the U.S. Supreme Court on June 23, 2003. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar.

Controversy

Proponents of affirmative action generally advocate it either as a means to address past discrimination or to enhance racial, ethnic, gender, or other diversity of some minority groups. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social In the political arena the term diversity (or diverse is used to describe political entities (neighborhoods cities nations student bodies etc ^[5] They may argue that the end result—a more diversified and representative student body, police force or other group—justifies the means, despite the text of the Equal Protection Clause, and regardless of the adverse discrimination against European Americans or Asian Americans. Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action The Equal Protection Clause, part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, provides that "no state shall… deny to any person A European American (Euro-American is a person who resides in the United States and is either from Europe or is the descendant of European immigrants Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry. They include sub-ethnic groups such as Chinese Americans Filipino Americans Indian

Philanthropists have drawn comparisons between the current economic state of some non-dominant groups and poverty. Philanthropy is the act of donating money goods services time and/or effort to support a socially beneficial cause with a defined objective and with no financial or material Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and Children born, today, to dominant families are clearly not at all responsible for poverty throughout the world. Although these children have in no way caused or condoned poverty, history predicts that some will nevertheless see poverty as an injustice that should be righted if indeed possible. Proponents of affirmative action may believe that genuine residual social and economic injustices continue to affect particular groups; and that these injustices should be righted if indeed possible. JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. Beyond the moral arguments for righting injustices, some proponents claim that immediate reparatory action - rather than delayed action or no action – can prevent the social and economic issues from reaching a stage where they become impossible (or greatly more difficult) to repair.

Much of the controversy surrounding affirmative action’s effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle and upper class minorities at the expense of lower class whites. This argument supports the idea of solely class based affirmative action. America’s poor is disproportionately made up of minorities, so class based affirmative action would disproportionately help minorities. This would eliminate the need for race based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle and upper class minorities. ^[6]

Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes. ^[7]

Opponents further claim that affirmative action has undesirable side-effects and that it fails to achieve its goals. They argue that it factors race into the decision-making process, perpetrates new wrongs to counter old ones, and undermines the achievements of minorities. It may increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within minority groups (such as middle to upper-class blacks) at the expense of the disenfranchised within majority groups (such as lower-class whites). In the British 2001 Summer of Violence Riots in Oldham, Bradford, Leeds and Burnley, one of the major complaints voiced in poor white areas was alleged discrimination in council funding which favored minority areas. Oldham is a large town in Greater Manchester, England It lies amongst the Pennines on elevated ground between the rivers Irk and Medlock Bradford ( lies at the heart of the City of Bradford, a Metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire, England. Leeds ( is located on the River Aire in West Yorkshire, England Burnley is a large Market town in the borough of Burnley in Lancashire, England, with a population of around 73500 There has recently been a strong push among American states to ban racial or gender preferences in university admissions, in reaction to the controversial and unprecedented decision in Grutter v. Bollinger. University admission or college admissions is the process through which students enter Tertiary education at universities and Colleges Systems Grutter v Bollinger, 539 US 306 (2003 is a case in which the United States Supreme Court upheld the Affirmative action In 2006, nearly 60% of Michigan voters decided to ban affirmative action in university admissions. Michigan joined California, Florida, Texas, and Washington in banning the use of race or sex in admissions considerations. ^[8] Some research has indicated that as many as 15 percent of freshmen enrolled at some of America's most selective colleges are wealthy white teens who failed to meet their institutions' minimum admissions standards, furthermore these wealthy white teens outnumber students who benefit from affirmative action. ^[9]

Some also claim that, in college or professional admissions, it hurts those it intends to help, since it causes a "mismatching" effect by admitting minority students who are less qualified than their peers into more rigorous programs wherein they cannot keep up and eventually fail to gain the degree or pass professional qualification exam (such as Bar exam) UCLA School of Law professor Richard Sander wrote several papers on this occurring in both the law schools, bar exam and in law firms. Mismatching is the term given to the negative effect that Affirmative action has when it places a student into a college that is too difficult for him or her ^[10]

How the media portray affirmative action and affirmative action cases plays a role in how the public responds to affirmative action. There are claims that the practice is racist or sexist, or both, depending on how one defines those concepts (for instance, the offering of extra college scholarships to black and Hispanic students as opposed to white or Asian students appears overtly racist). List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of Hispanic or Latino descent, which comprises ancestry or origins in Hispanic America A European American (Euro-American is a person who resides in the United States and is either from Europe or is the descendant of European immigrants Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry. They include sub-ethnic groups such as Chinese Americans Filipino Americans Indian List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Others believe that programs may be motivated by political considerations. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions

The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates (in Article 2. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD is a United Nations convention. 2) that affirmative action programs may be required of countries that have ratified the convention, in order to rectify systematic discrimination. It states, however, that such programs "shall in no case entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate rights for different racial groups after the objectives for which they were taken have been achieved. " The United Nations Human Rights Committee states, "the principle of equality sometimes requires States parties to take affirmative action in order to diminish or eliminate conditions which cause or help to perpetuate discrimination prohibited by the Covenant. For example, in a State where the general conditions of a certain part of the population prevent or impair their enjoyment of human rights, the State should take specific action to correct those conditions. Such action may involve granting for a time to the part of the population concerned certain preferential treatment in specific matters as compared with the rest of the population. However, as long as such action is needed to correct discrimination, in fact, it is a case of legitimate differentiation under the Covenant. "^[11]

An in-depth examination of the legal status of affirmative action, as well as the different kinds of programs that exist and their pros and cons, can be found in a paper written for the United Nations Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights by one of its members, Marc Bossuyt. In Law legal status refers to the concept of individuals having a particular place in society relative to the law as it determines the laws which affect them The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights (before 1999 known as the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities) was Marc Bossuyt (b Ghent, 9 January 1944) obtained a PhD in law at the University of Ghent in 1968, and a Certificate of international ^[12]

Implementation worldwide

In some countries which have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal by a requirement to treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "color blind", in hopes that it is effective against discrimination without engaging in reverse discrimination. Color-blind (sometimes called Race-blind) is a term describing activities undertaken and services provided without regard to the racial characteristics of those who Reverse Discrimination, is in its simplest form the practice of favouring a historically disadvantaged group at the expense of members of a historically advantaged group

In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes described as "positive action" or "positive discrimination".

• Brazil. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Some Brazilian Universities (State and Federal) have created systems of preferred admissions (quotas) for racial minorities (blacks and native Brazilians), the poor and people with disabilities. There are already quotas of up to 20% of vacancies reserved for the disabled in the civil public services. ^[13]

• Canada. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Canadian Employment Equity Act requires employers in federally-regulated industries to give preferential treatment to four designated groups: Women, people with disabilities, aboriginal people, and visible minorities. Visible minority is a term used primarily in Canada to describe persons who are not of the majority race in a given population Some provinces and territories also have affirmative action-type polices. For example, in Northwest Territories in the Canadian north, aboriginals are given preference for jobs and education and are considered to have P1 status. The Northwest Territories (ˌnɔrθˌwɛstˈtɛrɨtɔriz ( NWT or NT; French, les Territoires du Nord-Ouest) is a territory Non-aboriginal people who were born in the NWT or have resided half of their life there are considered a P2, as well as women and disabled peoples. Men receive the lowest priority, P3. ^[14]

• China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National In China, "preferential policies" required some of the top positions in governments be distributed to ethnic minorities and women. Ethnic minorities in China refer to the non- Han Chinese population in Mainland China and Taiwan. Also, selected universities give preferred admissions to ethnic minorities.

• Finland. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for Swedish-speaking applicants. The aim of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of Swedish speaking professionals are educated, thus safeguarding the linguistic rights of the Swedish-speaking Finns. Swedish -speaking Finns (often called Finland-Swedes, Finnish Swedes, Fennoswedes or Swedish Finns, see below ( Swedish The quota system has met with criticism from the Finnish speaking majority, some of whom consider the system unfair. In addition to these linguistic quotas, women may get preferential treatment in recruitment for certain public sector jobs if there is a gender imbalance in the field.

• France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 French Constitution. The current Constitution of France was adopted on October 4, 1958. Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Prioritary Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as Sciences Po). Sciences Po is a French abbreviation of sciences politiques, or Political science, which is a division of the Social sciences.

• Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Article 3 of the German constitution provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland is the Constitution of Germany. In recent years there has been a long public debate about whether to issue programs that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job. This is typically for all positions in state and university service as of 2007, typically using the phrase "We try to increase the percentage of females in this line of work"

• India

See main article: Reservation in India

• Japan. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Reservation in Indian law is a form of Affirmative action whereby a percentage of seats are reserved in the public sector units union and state civil services For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Admission to universities as well as all government positions (including teachers) are determined by the entrance exam, which is extremely competitive at the top level. It is illegal to include sex, ethnicity or other social background (but not nationality) in criteria. However, there are informal policies to provide employment and long term welfare (which is usually not available to general public) to Burakumin at municipality level. Burakumin (ja {{linktext 部 落 民}} buraku, tribe + min, people is a term often used to describe a Japanese social Minority group.
• Republic of Macedonia. The Republic of Macedonia (Република Minorities, most notably Albanians, are allocated quotas for access to state universities, as well as in civil public services. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics.
• Malaysia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The Malaysian New Economic Policy or NEP serves as a form of affirmative action. For the Soviet New Economic Policy see New Economic Policy. The Malaysian New Economic Policy ( NEP or DEB for Dasar It promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. Born after the race riots of 1969, it sought to address the significant imbalance in the economic sphere where the minority Chinese population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country. The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following A person who resides in and holds citizenship of the People's Republic of China (including Hong The dissatisfaction this caused among the native Malay resulted in the race riots of May 13, 1969. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Tun Abdul Razak who took over the premiership from the country's first PM, Tunku Abdul Rahman, initiated the NEP. For other individuals named Abdul Razak, or some variation thereof see Abdul Razak (disambiguation. Sir Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah, CH ( February 8 1903 &ndash December 6 Since then racial violence has subsided but there are continued and persistent attacks on the policy from the Chinese and Indian community, claiming that it gives Malays an unfair advantage and is self-defeating, as it arguably makes Malaysia less economically competitive compared to its neighbors and entrenches structural privileges not based on merit. According to the government's own study, the policy has yet to achieve its target of redistributing 30 percent of national wealth to the Malays which constitute 50 per cent of the population. However, there are studies that contradict this and there are questions pertaining to each study's methodology. Malaysia is a multiethnic country, with Malays making up the majority, close to 52% of the population. Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast About 30% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent. Malaysian Chinese is a Malaysian of Chinese origin Most are descendants of Chinese who arrived between the fifteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries Malaysians of Indian descent comprise about 8% of the population. Malaysian Indians are a group of Malaysians largely descended from those who migrated from southern India during the British colonization However, 99% of Petronas directors are Malays, only 3% of Petronas employees are Chinese, only 5% of all new intakes for government army, nurses, polices, are non-Malays, just 7% of government servants in the whole government are ethnic Chinese (2004), drop from 30% in 1960, and 95% of all government contracts are given to Malays. Petronas, short for Petroliam Nasional Berhad, is a Malaysian owned oil and gas company that was founded on August 17 1974. ^[15]

See also: Bumiputra

• New Zealand. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Individuals of Māori or other Polynesian descent are often afforded preferential access to university courses, and scholarships. This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over ^[16]
• Norway. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional All public company (ASA) boards with more than five members, must have at least 40 % women (can not be made up of more than 60%). A public company usually refers to a company that is permitted to offer its registered securities ( Stock, bonds, etc ^[16] This affects roughly 400 companies.
• Slovakia. Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million The Constitutional Court declared in October 2005 that affirmative action i. e. "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group" as being against its Constitution. [4]
• South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Employment Equity Act and the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment Act aim to promote and achieve equality in the workplace (in South Africa termed "equity"), by not only advancing people from designated groups but also specifically dis-advancing the others. Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE is a form of Black Economic Empowerment initiated by the South African government in response to criticism against Narrow By legal definition, the designated groups include all people of color, white females, people with disabilities, and people from rural areas. The term "black economic empowerment" is somewhat of a misnomer, therefore, because it covers empowerment of any member of the designated groups, regardless of race. However, government’s employment legislation reserves 80% of new jobs for black people and favours black owned companies. The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse ^[17] It is quota-based, with specific required outcomes. By a relatively complex scoring system, which allows for some flexibility in the manner in which each company meets its legal commitments, each company is required to meet minimum requirements in terms of representation by previously disadvantaged groups. The matters covered include equity ownership, representation at employee and management level (up to board of director level), procurement from black-owned businesses and social investment programs, amongst others.
• Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island In 1971 the Standardization policy of Sri Lankan universities was introduced as an affirmative action program for students from areas which had poor educational facilities due to 200 years purposeful discrimination by British colonialists. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The British had practised communal favoritism towards Christians and the minority Tamil community for the entire 200 years they had controlled Sri Lanka, as part of a policy of divide and conquer. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Tamil people (also called Tamils or Tamilians) ( are an Ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, a state in India, and the north-eastern This is one of the reasons for the Sri Lankan Civil War. The Sri Lankan Civil War is an Ongoing conflict on the Island -nation of Sri Lanka.
• Sweden. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Swedish democracy, although very solicitous about minorities' rights and integration, does not allow affirmative action, which is considered almost a kind of discrimination, and although aimed at strengthening workers' rights it is considered unfair. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Affirmative action is also regarded as emphasizing minorities' identity as a different, separate body, actually making the weak feel even worse and stigmatizing them, as they are given entitlements on the basis of their ascribed characteristics. Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms. Ascribed status is the Social status a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life
• United Kingdom. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Positive Discrimination is unlawful in the UK and quotas/selective systems are not permitted. ^[18][16] A singular exception to this is a provision made under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement which requires that the Police Service of Northern Ireland recruit equal numbers of Catholics and non-Catholics. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) The Agreement, most often referred to as the Belfast Agreement (Comhaontú Bhéal Feirste Belfast Greeance or the Good Friday Agreement (Comhaontú Aoine an The Police Service of Northern Ireland is the Police service that covers Northern Ireland. However a number of people are taking the UK Government to EU Human Rights for alleged breaches of the Human Rights Act. ^[19]
• United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Affirmative action in the United States occurs in school admissions, job hiring, and government and corporate contracts. Affirmative action in the United States is intended to promote access to education employment or housing among certain designated groups (typically Minorities and Women Its intended beneficiaries are disadvantaged ethnic minorities, women, people with disabilities, and veterans. Affirmative action has been the subject of numerous court cases,^[20] and has been contested on constitutional grounds. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. California, Michigan, and Washington have banned various forms of affirmative action by government organizations. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Michigan ( is a Midwestern state of the United States of America. Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. According to U. S. Office of Personnel Management's annual report "Federal Equal Opportunity Recruitment Program", a total of 48,033 new minority employees (disadvantaged ethnic minorities, women, people with disabilities, and veterans) have been hired by the federal agencies from FY 2001 to FY 2006. During the same period there has been a net decrease of 3,960 white male employees in federal jobs.

See also

Achievement gap Affirmative action in the United States Affirmative action bake sale Angry white male Bumiputra Color blind racism Discrimination Economic discrimination Employment equity (Canada) Equality of opportunity vs equality of results Equality inclusion

Jewish quota Minority groups Minority rights Multiculturalism Legacy preferences Numerus clausus Political correctness Positive liberty Principle-policy puzzle

Race of the Future Race and intelligence Race and Inequality Racism in the United States Reservation in India Reverse Discrimination Teaching for social justice White Guilt Women's rights

Notes and references

External links

• Affirmative Action at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• US Census Bureau: Definition of Race
• Washington Post Section on Affirmative Action
• Substantive Equality, Positive Action and Roma Rights in the European Union, Report by Minority Rights Group International

Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar.

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