Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Acids and bases:
edit

An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and Acid-base extraction is a procedure using sequential Liquid-liquid extractions to purify Acids and bases from mixtures based on their chemical properties Acid-base homeostasis is the part of Human homeostasis concerning the proper balance between Acids and bases, in other words the PH. An acidity function is a measure of the Acidity of a medium or solvent system usually expressed in terms of its ability to donate protons to (or accept protons from a For an individual weak acid or weak base component see Buffering agent. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. The proton affinity, E pa of a Anion or of a neutral Atom or Molecule is a measure of its gas-phase basicity. The self-ionization of water (also autoionization of water, and autodissociation of water) is the chemical reaction in which two water molecules react to produce a In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are A mineral acid is an Acid derived by Chemical reaction from inorganic Minerals as opposed to Organic acids These have Hydrogen An organic acid is an Organic compound with Acidic properties A Strong acid is an Acid that Ionizes completely in an Aqueous solution (not in the case of Sulfuric acid as it is diprotic A superacid is an Acid with an Acidity greater than that of 100% Sulfuric acid, which has a Hammett acidity function ( H 0 A weak acid is an Acid that does not completely donate all of its hydrogens when dissolved in water In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and An organic base is an Organic compound which acts as a base. Organic bases are usually but not always proton acceptors In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and In Chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong base. There is no commonly accepted definition for what qualifies as a superbase but most chemists would accept As the name suggests a non-nucleophilic base is an organic base that is a very Strong base but at the same time a poor Nucleophile. In chemistry a weak base is a Chemical base that does not Ionize fully in an Aqueous solution. A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and Several concepts exist which provide alternative definitions for the reaction mechanisms involved and their application in solving related problems. Despite several similarities in definitions, their importance becomes apparent as different methods of analysis when applied to acid-base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. Historically, the first of these scientific concepts of acids and bases was provided by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, circa 1776. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. Year 1776 ( MDCCLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a [1]

Contents

Common acid-base theories

Lavoisier definition

Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxyacids, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, such as HNO3 and H2SO4, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids, HCl, HBr, and HI, he defined acids in terms of their containing oxygen, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" (from the Greek οξυς (oxys) meaning "acid" or "sharp" and γεινομαι (geinomai) or "engender"). A Strong acid is an Acid that Ionizes completely in an Aqueous solution (not in the case of Sulfuric acid as it is diprotic An oxoacid is an Acid which contains Oxygen. More specifically it is an acid which contains oxygen contains at least one other element The oxidation number of a central atom in a coordination compound is the charge that it would have if all the Ligands were removed along with the Electron pairs Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The Lavoisier definition was held as absolute truth for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in H2S, H2Te, and the hydrohalic acids. Sir Humphry Davy 1st Baronet FRS MRIA (17 December 1778 &ndash 29 May 1829 was a British Chemist and inventor Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the Chemical compound with the formula H 2 S. Hydrogen telluride is the Chemical compound with the formula H 2 Te. Hydrogen halides (or hydrohalic acids) are acids resulting from the chemical reaction of Hydrogen with one of the Halogen elements ( Fluorine,

Liebig definition

This definition is proposed by Justus von Liebig circa 1838,[2] based on his extensive works on the chemical composition of organic acids. Justus von Liebig ( May 12, 1803 &ndash April 18, 1873) was a German Chemist Year 1838 ( MDCCCXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common An organic acid is an Organic compound with Acidic properties This finished the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids, started by Davy. According to Liebig, an acid is a hydrogen-containing substance in which the hydrogen could be replaced by a metal. [3] Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition. [4]

Arrhenius definition

Devised after the metal-replacement theory of Justus von Liebig and despite some modifications by later theories, the Arrhenius (pictured) concept remains a simple scientific definition of acid-base reaction character.
Devised after the metal-replacement theory of Justus von Liebig and despite some modifications by later theories, the Arrhenius (pictured) concept remains a simple scientific definition of acid-base reaction character. Justus von Liebig ( May 12, 1803 &ndash April 18, 1873) was a German Chemist [5]

The Arrhenius definition of acid-base reactions is a more simplified acid-base concept devised by Svante Arrhenius, which was used to provide a modern definition of bases that followed from his work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution in 1884, and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1903 for "recognition of the extraordinary services . Svante August Arrhenius ( February 19, 1859 &ndash October 2, 1927) was a Swedish Scientist, originally a Physicist Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald ( Latvian: Vilhelms Ostvalds; September 2, 1853 &ndash April 4, 1932) was a Baltic Year 1884 ( MDCCCLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature Year 1903 ( MCMIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting . . rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation"[5]

As defined at the time of discovery, acid-base reactions are characterized by Arrhenius acids, which dissociate in aqueous solution form hydrogen or the later-termed oxonium (H3O+) ions,[5] and Arrhenius bases which form hydroxide (OH-) ions. More recent IUPAC recommendations now suggest the newer term "hydronium"[6] be used in favor of the older accepted term "oxonium"[7] to illustrate reaction mechanisms such as those defined in the Brønsted-Lowry and solvent system definitions more clearly, with the Arrhenius definition serving as a simple general outline of acid-base character[5] More succinctly, the Arrhenius definition can be surmised as;

“ Arrhenius acids form hydrogen ions in aqueous solution with Arrhenius bases forming hydroxide ions. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) (aɪjuːpæk or ay-yoo-pec) is an international Non-governmental organization ”

The universal aqueous acid-base definition of the Arrhenius concept is described as the formation of water from hydrogen and hydroxide ions, or hydronium ions and hydroxide ions produced from the dissociation of an acid and base in aqueous solution (2 H2O → OH- + H3O+ )[8], which leads to the definition that in Arrhenius acid-base reactions, a salt and water is formed from the reaction between an acid and a base --[5] in more simple scientific definitions, this form of reaction is called a Neutralization reaction. In chemistry Neutralization is a Chemical reaction (also called a water forming reaction since a water molecule is formed during the process in which an

acid+ + base- → salt + water

The positive ion from a base can form a salt with the negative ion from an acid. For example, two moles of the base sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can combine with one mole of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to form two moles of water and one mole of sodium sulfate. The mole (symbol mol) is a unit of Amount of substance: it is an SI base unit, and almost the only unit to be used to measure this Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Sodium sulfate is the Sodium salt of Sulfuric acid

2NaOH + H2SO4 → 2 H2O + Na2SO4

Brønsted-Lowry definition

Main article: Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory

The Brønsted-Lowry definition, formulated independently by its two proponents Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry in 1923 is based upon the idea of protonation of bases through the de-protonation of acids -- more commonly referred to as the ability of acids to "donate" hydrogen ions (H+) or protons to bases, which "accept" them. Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted born in Varde ( February 22, 1879 – December 17, 1947) was a Danish physical chemist Thomas Martin Lowry ( October 26, 1874 - November 2, 1936) was an English physical chemist. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In chemistry protonation is the addition of a proton ( H[[Cation +]] to an Atom, Molecule, or Ion. Deprotonation is a Chemistry term that refers to the removal of a Proton ( Hydrogen Cation H+ from a Molecule, forming The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive [9] In contrast to the Arrhenius definition, the Brønsted-Lowry definition refers to the products of an acid-base reaction as conjugate acids and bases to refer to the relation of one proton, and to indicate that there has been a reaction between the two quantities, rather than a "formation" of salt and water, as explained in the Arrhenius definition. [5][9]

It defines that in reactions, there is the donation and reception of a proton, which essentially refers to the removal of a hydrogen ion bonded within a compound and its reaction with another compound,[10] and not the removal of a proton from the nucleus of an atom, which would require inordinate amounts of energy not attainable through the simple dissociation of acids. In differentiation from the Arrhenius definition, the Brønsted-Lowry definition postulates that for each acid, there is a conjugate acid and base or "conjugate acid-base pair" that is formed through a complete reaction, which also includes water, which is amphoteric:[10][5][9]


AH + B → BH+ + A-
General formula for representing Brønsted-Lowry reactions. Svante August Arrhenius ( February 19, 1859 &ndash October 2, 1927) was a Swedish Scientist, originally a Physicist


HCl (aq) + H2O → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Hydrochloric acid completely reacts with water to form the hydronium and chloride ions


CH3COOH + NH3 → NH4+ + CH3COO-
Acetic acid reacts incompletely with ammonia, no hydronium ions being produced

Lewis definition

Further information: Lewis acid and Lewis base

The Lewis definition of acid-base reactions, devised by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1923[11] is an encompassing theory to the Brønsted-Lowry and solvent-system definitions[12] with regards to the premise of a donation mechanism,[12] which conversely attributes the donation of electron pairs from bases and the acceptance by acids, rather than protons or other bonded substances[12] and spans both aqueous and non-aqueous reactions. Hydrochloric acid is the Solution of Hydrogen chloride ( H[[Chlorine Cl]] in water Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound, giving Vinegar its sour taste Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Gilbert Newton Lewis ( October 23, 1875 - March 23, 1946) was a famous American physical chemist known for the discovery Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [12]

Ag+ + 2 :NH3 → [H3N:Ag:NH3]+
A silver cation reacts as an acid with ammonia which acts as an electron-pair donor, forming an ammonia-silver adduct

In reactions between Lewis acids and bases, there is the formation of an adduct[12] when the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of a molecule, such as NH3 with available lone electron pair(s) donates lone pairs of electrons to the electron-deficient molecule's lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) through a co-ordinate covalent bond; in such a reaction, the HOMO-interacting molecule acts as a base, and the LUMO-interacting molecule acts as an acid. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor HOMO and LUMO are Acronyms for highest occupied Molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied Molecular orbital, respectively HOMO and LUMO are Acronyms for highest occupied Molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied Molecular orbital, respectively A coordinate covalent bond (formerly also known as dative bond) is a description of Covalent bonding between two atoms in which both electrons shared in the bond come [12] In highly-polar molecules, such as boron trifluoride (BF3),[12] the most electronegative element pulls electrons towards its own orbitals, providing a more positive charge on the less-electronegative element and a difference in its electronic structure due to the axial or equatorial orbiting positions of its electrons, causing repulsive effects from lone pair-bonding pair (Lp-Bp) interactions between bonded atoms in excess of those already provided by bonding pair-bonding pair (Bp-Bp) interactions. Boron trifluoride is the Chemical compound with the formula BF3 " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons [12] Adducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds. [12]

Solvent-system definition

This definition is based on a generalization of the earlier Arrhenius definition to all autodissociating solvents. In all such solvents there is a certain concentration of a positive species, solvonium cations and negative species, solvate anions, in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules. For example:

2H2O ⇌ H3O+ (hydronium) + OH- (hydroxide)
2NH3 ⇌ NH4+ (ammonium) + NH2− (amide)

or even some aprotic systems

N2O4 ⇌ NO+ (nitrosonium) + NO3− (nitrate)
2SbCl3 ⇌ SbCl2+ (dichloroantimonium) + SbCl4- (tetrachloroantimonate)

A solute causing an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the solvate ions is an acid and one causing the reverse is a base. In Chemistry, hydronium is the obsolete name for the Cation H 3 O + derived from Protonation of Water In Chemistry, hydroxide is the most common name for the diatomic Anion OH− consisting of Oxygen and Hydrogen Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. In Chemistry, an amide is one of three kinds of Compounds (sometimes called acid amide the organic Functional group characterized The nitrosonium Ion is NO+ the Nitrogen atom is bonded to an Oxygen atom with a Bond order of 3 the overall diatomic species bearing In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms Thus, in liquid ammonia, KNH2 (supplying NH2-) is a strong base, and NH4NO3 (supplying NH4+) is a strong acid. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor In liquid sulfur dioxide (SO2), thionyl compounds (supplying SO2+) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying SO32−) behave as bases. The thionyl group is SO a Sulfur atom plus an Oxygen atom It occurs in compounds such as Thionyl fluoride, SOF2 Sulfites (also sulphites) are compounds that contain the sulfite Ion S[[oxygen O]]32−

Here are some nonaqueous acid-base reactions in liquid ammonia

2NaNH2 (base) + Zn(NH2)2 (amphiphilic amide) → Na2[Zn(NH2)4]
2NH4I (acid) + Zn(NH2)2 (amphiphilic amide) → [Zn(NH3)4)]I2

Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:

HNO3 (base) + 2H2SO4 → NO2+ + H3O+ + 2HSO4-

And things become even stranger in the aprotic world, for example in liquid N2O4:

AgNO3 (base) + NOCl (acid) → N2O4 + AgCl

Since solvent-system definition depends on the solvent as well as on the compound itself, the same compound can change its role depending on the choice of the solvent. Amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις amphis both and φιλíα Philia: love friendship is a term describing a Chemical compound possessing both Amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις amphis both and φιλíα Philia: love friendship is a term describing a Chemical compound possessing both Thus, HClO4 is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid.

Other acid-base theories

Usanovich definition

The most general definition is that of the Russian chemist Mikhail Usanovich, and can basically be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This tends to overlap the concept of redox (oxidation-reduction), and so is not highly favored by chemists. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state This is because redox reactions focus more on physical electron transfer processes, rather than bond making/bond breaking processes, although the distinction between these two processes is somewhat ambiguous.

Lux-Flood definition

This definition, proposed by German chemist Hermann Lux[13][14] in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood circa 1947[15] and now commonly used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts, describes an acid as an oxide ion acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. Hermann Lux ( September 3, 1904 &ndash July 8, 1999) was a prominent inorganic Chemist from Munich Germany Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Håkon Flood (1905 - 2001 was a professor of Inorganic chemistry at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim, Norway, from 1953 to Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The field of geochemistry involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other Planets chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition Electrochemistry is a branch of Chemistry that studies Chemical reactions which take place in a Solution at the interface of an electron conductor For example:

MgO (base) + CO2 (acid) → MgCO3
CaO (base) + SiO2 (acid) → CaSiO3
NO3- (base) + S2O72- (acid) → NO2+ + 2SO42-[16]

Pearson definition

Main article: HSAB concept

In 1963[17] Ralph Pearson proposed an advanced qualitative concept known as Hard Soft Acid Base principle, later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. The HSAB concept is an Acronym for 'hard and soft Acids and bases. Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The HSAB concept is an Acronym for 'hard and soft Acids and bases. Robert Ghormley Parr (born September 22, 1921) is a theoretical chemist. Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) 'Hard' applies to species which are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species which are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact and the most stable interactions are hard-hard and soft-soft. This theory has found use in both organic and inorganic chemistry.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Miessler, L. In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other Lewis structures, also called Lewis-dot diagrams are diagrams that show the bonding between Atoms of a Resonance in Chemistry is a theory used to represent and model certain types of non-classical Molecular structures Resonance is a key component In chemistry protonation is the addition of a proton ( H[[Cation +]] to an Atom, Molecule, or Ion. Deprotonation is a Chemistry term that refers to the removal of a Proton ( Hydrogen Cation H+ from a Molecule, forming In organic and Inorganic chemistry, nucleophilic substitution is a fundamental class of Substitution reaction in which an "electron rich" Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state An acid-base Titration is a method in Chemistry that allows quantitative analysis of the concentration of an unknown Acid or base M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) p166 - Table of discoveries attributes Antoine Lavoisier as the first to posit a scientific theory in relation to oxyacids. An oxoacid is an Acid which contains Oxygen. More specifically it is an acid which contains oxygen contains at least one other element
  2. ^ Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) p166 - table of discoveries attributes Justus von Liebig's publication as 1838
  3. ^ Meyers, R. (2003) p156
  4. ^ H. L. Finston and A. C. Rychtman, A New View of Current Acid-Base Theories, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982, pp. 140-146.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) p165
  6. ^ Murray, K. K. , Boyd, R. K. , et al. (2006) -- Please note that in this document, there is no reference to deprecation of "oxonium", which is also still accepted as it remains in the IUPAC Gold book, but rather reveals preference for the term "Hydronium".
  7. ^ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, et al. (2006), "Oxonium Ions"
  8. ^ The use of H+ is as shorthand for H3O; 2 H2O → H3O+ + OH- = H2O → H+ + OH-
  9. ^ a b c Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991), p167-169 -- According to this page, the original definition was that "acids have a tendency to lose a proton"
  10. ^ a b Clayden, J. , Warren, S. , et al. (2000), p182-184
  11. ^ Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) p166 - Table of discoveries attributes the date of publication/release for the Lewis theory as 1923.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) p170-172
  13. ^ Franz, H. (1966), p4
  14. ^ Lux, Hermann (1939). Hermann Lux ( September 3, 1904 &ndash July 8, 1999) was a prominent inorganic Chemist from Munich Germany ""Säuren" und "Basen" im Schmelzfluss: die Bestimmung. der Sauerstoffionen-Konzentration". Ztschr. Elektrochem 45 (4): 303–309.  
  15. ^ Flood, H.; Forland, T. Håkon Flood (1905 - 2001 was a professor of Inorganic chemistry at the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim, Norway, from 1953 to (1947). "The Acidic and Basic Properties of Oxides". Acta Chem. Scand. 1: 592.  
  16. ^ Drago, Russel S. ; Whitten, Kenneth W. (1966). "The Synthesis of Oxyhalides Utilizing Fused-Salt Media". Inorg. Chem. 5 (4): 677 - 682. Inorganic Chemistry is a peer-reviewed Scientific journal, published since 1962 by the American Chemical Society. doi:10.1021/ic50038a038. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  17. ^ Pearson, Ralph G. (1963). "Hard and Soft Acids and Bases". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85 (22): 3533 - 3539. The Journal of the American Chemical Society (usually abbreviated as J doi:10.1021/ja00905a001. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  

References

  1. Miessler, L. M. , Tar, D. A. , (1991) "Inorganic Chemistry" 2nd ed. Pearson Prentice-Hall
  2. Clayden, J. , Warren, S. , et al. (2000) "Organic Chemistry" Oxford University Press
  3. Meyers, R. (2003) "The Basics of Chemistry" Greenwood Press
  4. Lux, Hermann (1939). Hermann Lux ( September 3, 1904 &ndash July 8, 1999) was a prominent inorganic Chemist from Munich Germany ""Säuren" und "Basen" im Schmelzfluss: die Bestimmung. der Sauerstoffionen-Konzentration". Ztschr. Elektrochem 45 (4): 303–309.  
  5. Translated as: Lux, Hermann: “Acids” and “bases” in a fused salt bath: the determination of oxygen-ion. In: Journal of Electrochemistry, Vol 45 (1939), S. 303–309
  6. Drago, Russel S. ; Whitten, Kenneth W. (1966). "The Synthesis of Oxyhalides Utilizing Fused-Salt Media". Inorg. Chem. 5 (4): 677 - 682. Inorganic Chemistry is a peer-reviewed Scientific journal, published since 1962 by the American Chemical Society. doi:10.1021/ic50038a038. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  7. H. L. Finston and A. C. Rychtman, A New View of Current Acid-Base Theories, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982, pp. 140-146.
  8. Franz, H. (1966). "Solubility of Water Vapor in Alkali Borate Melts". J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 49 (9): 473–477.  
  9. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (2006) IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, Electronic version Retrieved from International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry on 9 May 2007 on URL http://goldbook.iupac.org/O04379.html
  10. Murray, K. Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. K. , Boyd, R. K. , et al. (2006) "Standard definition of terms relating to mass spectrometry recommendations" International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

External links

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic