אתורא Athura Province [1] of Achaemenid Empire 539 BC – 330 BC Assyria within The Achaemenid Empire, 500 BC. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Events and trends 539 BC — Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus; noted in such documents as that of Africanus Events By place Macedonian Empire January 20 — Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, led by satrap Ariobarzanes The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of History  - Established 539 BC  - Disestablished 330 BC

Athura^[2] (Old Persian for Assyria) was a geographical area within the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the period of 539 BC to 330 BC. Events and trends 539 BC — Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus; noted in such documents as that of Africanus Events By place Macedonian Empire January 20 — Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, led by satrap Ariobarzanes The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Although sometimes regarded as a satrapy,^[3][4] Achaemenid royal inscriptions list it as a dahyu, a concept generally interpreted as meaning either a group of people or both a country and its people, without any administrative implication. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient ^[5]

It mostly incorporated the original Assyrian homeland in the upper Tigris, the middle and upper Euphrates, modern-day Syria (Eber-Nari) and part of south-east Turkey. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת Eber-Nari ( Akkadian, also Ebir-Nari) or Abar-Nahara ( Aramaic) was the name of a region of Western Asia and a Satrapy of the Achaemenid ^[6][7] The Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed under the invasion of Iranian peoples in the late 7th century BC, culminating in the Battle of Nineveh. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC Ancient Iranian peoples who settled Greater Iran in the 2nd millennium BC first appear in Assyrian records in the 9th century BC. The Battle of Nineveh was fought in 612 BC. It witnessed the Assyrian capital of Nineveh being sacked besieged and conquered by allied forces Between 612 and 559 BC, Assyria was divided between the Median Empire to the east and the Neo-Babylonian Empire to the west. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean" dynasty from the revolt of Nabopolassar Both parts were subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC, and it has been argued that they constituted the satrapies of Media and Athura, respectively. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. ^[4] In Herodotus' account the Ninth Tributary District comprised "Babylonia and the rest of Assyria", and excluded Eber-Nari. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Herodotus divided the Achaemenid Empire into 20 districts The following is a description of the ethnic makeup of the districts and the amount they paid in taxes translated ^[8]

Despite a few rebellions, Assyria functioned as an important part of the Achaemenid Empire. Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance The Assyrian population was given the right to govern itself throughout Achaemenid rule, and the Assyrian (Aramaic) language was used diplomatically by the Persians. ^[9] Known for their combat skills, Assyrian soldiers (along with the Lydians) constituted the main heavy infantry of the Achaemenid empire's military. Defining Lydia Aside from a legend related by Herodotus, who states that the name Lydia came from king Lydus at the time of the fall of Troy ^[10] Due to the major destruction of Assyria during the fall of its empire, some scholars describe the area as an "uninhabited wasteland. " Other Assyriologist, however, such as John Curtis, have strongly disputed this claim, citing how Assyria would eventually become one of the wealthiest regions among the Achaemenid Empire. Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study ^[11] This wealth was due to the land's great prosperity for agriculture that the Persians used effectively for almost 200 years. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In contrast to the policy of the Assyrian Empire, the Achaemenid Persians did not intervene in the internal affairs of their ruling satrapies as long as they continued the flow of tribute and taxes back to Persia. ^[12]

Fall of the Assyrian Empire

Assyrians lay waste to Susa, Elam, 647 BC. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. In less than 40 years the same fate would befall Assur, Nineveh and Harran. Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa)

Between the 9th and 7th centuries BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire dominated the Middle East militarily and politically,^[13] and at one point, the Persians and their neighbors the Medes were vassals of Assyria and paid tribute. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. In the late 7th century BC, however, the Assyrians suffered a number of calamities that led to the sacking of the old capital Assur by the Medes, who then combined forces with Babylon and sacked the new capital Nineveh in 612 BC. Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) The Battle of Nineveh eventually left Assyria destroyed for years to come. The Assyrians continued to fight on, with the aid of Egypt who feared the rise of the Babylonians. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Harran, the new Assyrian capital, was eventually taken in 608 BC. ^[14] Despite this, the Egyptians later sent another force to assist the Assyrians in 605 BC. ^[15]

A costly but victorious battle at Megiddo against the forces of Judah allowed the Egyptians to advance to the rescue, only to be defeated by the Babylonian-Median alliance. This Battle of Megiddo is recorded as having taken place in 609 BC with Necho II of Egypt leading his army to Carchemish to fight with his allies the Assyria was conquered by Babylonia. ^[15] Babylonian rule was unpopular, but did not last long. When the Babylonian King Nabonidus made war with Persia, he was defeated by an outnumbered Cyrus the Great at the Battle of Sardis in 546 BC. Nabonidus ( Akkadian Nabû-nāʾid) was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BCE In the Siege of Sardis (546 BC, the last decisive conflict after the Battle of Thymbra, which was fought between the forces of Croesus of Lydia and Cyrus's armies took Babylon and made it, along with Assyria, into provinces of the Persian Empire. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia ^[15]

Athura as part of the Achaemenid Empire

Inhabitance at the former major Assyrian capitals was sparse during the Achaemenid rule. Assyrian settlement were mostly in small villages at plain level or on mounds such as Tell ed-Darim. Despite most of the Assyrian land was left in ruins from the battles that led to the fall of its empire in the previous century, rural Assyria was prosperous according to the Greek scholar Xenophon. The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca ^[16] After passing Nimrud and Nineveh (which he described in ruins), Xenophon and the Greeks turned north-west, following the east bank of the Tigris River, he described rural Assyria as:

The testimony is an example of the rich agricultural resources of Athura's region and the existence of a satrap’s palace. It is not known exactly where this palace was located, but Layard suggest it may have been near Zakho. Zakho ( Arabic: ar زاخو Kurdish: زاخو Zaxo, or Zaco) is a district and a town in northern Iraq, located a few kilometers ^[18]

Assyrian delegation offering tribute to the Persian king in Apadana (modern-day Perspolis, Iran) 5th century BC. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[19]

An inscription found in Egypt shows Arsames describes a few Assyrian cities whom obtained administrative centres within Achaemenid rule:^[20]

• Lair: Assyrian Lahiru (Eski Kifri), by the Diyala Valley
• Arzuhina: Tell Chemchemal, 40 kilometers east of Kirkuk
• Arbela
• Halsu: Location unknown
• Matalubash: Assyrian Ubaše (Tell Huwaish), 20 kilometers north of ancient city of Assur

Prior to the Persian rule of Assyria, The Achaemenids were greatly Assyrianized,^[21] and Aramaic continued as the lingua franca of the Empire in the region, with the Assyrian script being the everyday writing system. Arsames (𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠𐎶 Aršāma modern Persian: ارشام&lrm Greek:; &ndash ca Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كه‌ركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; Arbil (also written Erbil or Irbil; BGN: Arbīl; Kurdish: هه‌ولێر Hewlêr Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely Local religion within the empire were tolerated, and the judicial system, calendar and imperial standards imposed by the Assyrians remained in force everywhere. This article is about the calendar introduced in the 1950s See Old Assyrian calendar for the ancient calendar ^[22]

The Assyrians, like all other tributary peoples of the Persian Empire, were obliged to pay taxes to the King of Persia and, whenever the King campaigned, supply troops as well. Reliefs of Assyrian tribute bearers carved on the east and north sides of the Apadana, consist of seven bearded men: one carrying animal skins, one carrying a length of cloth, two carrying bowls, and two leading Mouflons. Leather is a material created through the Tanning of hides and Skins of Animals primarily Cattlehide The Tanning process The mouflon ( Ovis orientalis orientalis group is a subspecies group of the wild sheep Ovis orientalis. ^[23]

Rise of Aramaic

The Assyrian Empire resorted to a policy of deporting conquered peoples into the lands of Mesopotamia and, in turn, settling Assyrian colonists in newly conquered lands. In this way it was hoped that a multi-cultural society would form. While this allowed some integration, it may have also led to the various rebellions within the Empire in the 7th century. By the 6th century, the many peoples in Mesopotamia spoke many languages, most of which were a derivative of Aramaic. Consequently, during the Persian rule of Assyria, Aramaic gradually became the main language spoken by the Assyrians. ^[24] Even before the Empire fell, many could speak Aramaic, and the ruling elite of Assyria needed to have been bilingual, capable of speaking both Akkadian and Aramaic. ^[24] The conquest of Assyria and the violent destruction of the cities meant that these bilingual skilled individuals died with their language and the Aramaic script was incorporated into the Assyrian culture by around the late 6th century BC. ^[24]

Inscriptionnal Pahlavi text from Shapur III at Taq-e Bostan, 4th century. Shapur III was the eleventh Sassanid King of Persia from 383 to 388 Taqwasân or Taq-e Bostan or Taq-i-Bustan ( Persian: طاق بستان, Kurdish: Taqwesan is a series of large rock relief from the era of Pahlavi script is derived from the Aramaic script that was used under the Achaemenid rule. The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of

Following the Achaemenid conquest of Assyria under Darius I, the Aramaic language was adopted as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. Aramaic is a Semitic language with " ^[25] The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", and be assumed to have greatly contributed to the success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did. An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory ^[25] Imperial Aramaic was highly standardized; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Richard Nelson Frye (born c 1920 is an American scholar of Iranian and Central Asian Studies, and Aga Khan Professor Emeritus ^[26] Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the "lingua franca" of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely

For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenids, Imperial Aramaic – or near enough for it to be recognizable – remained an influence on the various native Iranian languages. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary survived as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi writing system. ^[27]

One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis fortification tablets, which number about five hundred. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial ^[28] Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Elephantine (جزيرة الفنتين is an Island in the River Nile, located just downstream of the First Cataract at at the southern border of Of them, the best known is the Wisdom of Ahiqar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical book of Proverbs. The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh, and thus also one of the books of the Old Testament. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.

A group of thirty Imperial Aramaic documents from Bactria were recently discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BCE Achaemenid provinces of Bactria and Sogdiana. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great ^[29]

Revolt of Assyria, 520 BC

In 520 BC the two Assyrian Provinces of Mada and Athura revolted against the Persian Empire. ^[30] Though the revolt was quickly suppressed, it illustrated that the two regions acted in unison, suggesting perhaps a cultural link. Having said this a rebellion could occur in several different parts of an Empire for geographical reasons and it may have been that the whole of the Mesopotamia region became swept with rebellion.

Campaigns

Although the effectiveness of the Assyrian army was shown to be poor in its collapse, the soldiers of Assyria continued to be brave and fierce warriors. Most soldiers at the time would not wear heavy armor, but rather than act as melee troops, would serve as skirmishers. Melee (from the French mêlée meˈleː generally refers to disorganized Close combat involving a group of fighters Skirmishers are Infantry or Cavalry Soldiers stationed ahead or alongside of a larger body of friendly troops The Assyrian troops were different however, since they fought as archers, cavalry and heavy infantry and were useful as front line troops. The Assyrian infantry was specifically trained to engage in hand-to-hand. ^[31] A massive army was assembled by Xerxes in the early 5th century BC. Contemporary estimates place the numbers between 100,000 to over a million. Whatever the number, it was enormous and the Persians summoned troops from all across their realm. Herodotus remarks that Assyrian soldiers were employed in Xerxes' expedition to Greece. ^[30]

Influence of Assyrian art on Achaemenid sculpture

Assyrians of Athura were responsible for the glazing of the Palace and have influenced Persian art to some extent.

The Assyrians continued to serve the Persians under King Darius who was at his time considered the greatest ruler, often styling himself as "King of Kings. Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed " He ruled as a king over many other powerful subordinates and, as such, it was believed that a great palace should be built at the Persian city of Susa. The Assyrians were employed in the construction of this building, albeit with many other tributary peoples as well as Persians themselves. The Western Assyrians of Athura were closer to Mount Lebanon, where fine trees could be found and timber processed for Darius' grand Palace. The Eastern Assyrians of Mada were charged with excavating gold. ^[30]

Assyrian influence over Achaemenid art and sculpture can be seen in various areas of the empire. Examples include the doorway relief of the palaces in Pasargadae,^[33] and in the Bukan area (near Urmia) where various tiles are decorated with human-headed winged figures, lions, and ibexes. Pasargadae (پاسارگاد was a city in ancient Persia, and is today an Archaeological site and one of only five of Iran's UNESCO World Heritage Bukan may refer to Bukan Afghanistan Bukan Iran An ibex, commonly called by its French name bouquetin also called Steinbock in German an individual of any of several species of wild mountain goats (genus ^[34] The symbol of the Assyrian God, Ashur, was chosen as the symbol of the Zoroastrian faith's God, Ahuramazda during the Achaemenid rule of Assyria. Aššur (also Ashur, Assur; written A-šur, also Aš-šùr, in Neo-Assyrian often shortened to Aš) was the head of the Assyrian The faravahar or farohar (transliteration varies is one of the best-known symbols of Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Ahura Mazda ( ae Ahura Mazdā) is the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one uncreated Creator ^[35] But perhaps the best example of Assyrian influence can be observed in the "Gate of all Nations" in Persepolis, with two Lamassus (human-headed winged bull) in the entrance. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial The Sumerian word lama, which is rendered in Akkadian as lamassu, refers to a beneficient protective female deity ^[33] The Assyrian lamassu, however, was used to protect the palace from evil spirits, while those of Persepolis expressed meditative calm and humanity. Iranologist and Assyriologist have tried to answer the question of how was the influence transmitted. Iranian Studies ( ايران شناسیis an interdisciplinary field dealing with the study of the Iranian cultural region (or the Iranian "cultural continent" Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study Possibilities include contacts between Athura and Persia were frequent and Achaemenid architects visited the Assyrian palaces. Other suggest Assyrian slaves were brought back to Persia to have them work on the new palaces. ^[36]

Economy

Athura became one of the wealthiest provinces, due to its fertile land.

As with many other countries, the primary occupation was farming. ^[37] The large output of Mesopotamian farms resulted in highly populated civilizations. ^[37] The chief crop that fueled the ever-growing civilizations in the region was the grain barley and enumer wheat though sesame seeds also provided a source of nourishment. ^[37] Like much of the rest of the world at the time, the economy of Athura relied heavily upon the produce of the farms and the rivers, including fish and what fruit and meat could be raised in the Euphrates' fertile soils. The agricultural year began with sowing after summer. Flooding posed a serious risk to farmers, whilst rodents were supposedly driven off by prayers to the rodent god. ^[38] To ensure that such prayers were answered, tall silos were built to house the grain and keep out the mice.

Trees were grown for their fruit. To prevent the hot winds of the region from destroying the crops, tall palm trees were planted around the smaller trees, thus breaking the wind and shading the plants from the heat of the sun, the intensity of which provided plenty for the plants, even when shaded. ^[38] Following the Persian conquest, peaches were added to the original Assyrian mix of apples, cherries, figs, pears, plums and pomegranates. The pomegranate ( Punica granatum) is a Fruit -bearing Deciduous Shrub or small Tree growing to between five and eight metres tall ^[38] Tree growing was an art mastered with tree-cutting and even "artificial mating" in order to have the Palm trees yield fruit. ^[38] In the north, rainfall in Athura met the demands of farming but in the more southernly parts (covering Mada) Shadufs were used to assist in irrigation. A shadoof or shaduf (an Arabic word شادوف ^[39]

Oxen, donkeys, cattle and sheep were raised, the latter for their milk (which could be turned into butter) and the former as draught animals. Pigs, ducks, geese and chickens were all raised for their meat. Hunting supplemented the food supply with birds and fish. ^[40]

The down-time resulting from farming and the seasons allows men and women to master other skills in life such as the arts, philosophy and leisure. Without the fertile soils of the Euphrates river valley, civilization would not have come to be. The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת ^[37]

Archaeological findings

Nimrud

Nimrud's buildings were dramatically destroyed during the sacking of 614–612 BC. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. However, evidence of reoccupation during the "post-Assyrian period" (612–539 BC) is noted in various areas, including the Palace of Adad-nirari III, the North-West Palace, the Burnt Palace and Nabu Temple complex, Fort Shalmaneser, and the Town-Wall Houses. Adad-nirari III (also Adad-narari) was King of Assyria from 811 to 783 BC ^[41]

Xenephon passed by the Nimrud (which he called Larissa) in 401 BC along with 10,000 Greek soldiers and described the city as

Assyrian pottery such us these have been dated back to the 5th and 4th century BC. Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware

Despite Xenephon’s description of the city as being abandoned, archaeological evidence seems to show that there was some Achaemenid-period occupation. Phase 3 or H in the Nabu Temple complex and Burnt Palace is described as Achaemenid occupation. ^[43] They include traces of kilns on the south side of Room 47 in the Burnt Palace, together with red glass ingots and slag, which after a radiocarbon analysis yielded a date of 425 +/- 50 BC. ^[44] In the Nabu Temple, a pipe lamp and a group of seven pottery vessels are considered to be "ascribed to the Achaemenid period. "^[45] There was also some Achaemenid occupation in the South-East Palace: a deep footed bowl, a hemispherical bowl (which is compared with pottery from the Achaemenid village at Susa)^[46], and three pottery vessels. ^[47] Also in the South-East Palace were two "eye of Horus" amulets, often regarded as hallmarks of Achaemenid period material culture. Another eye of Horus amulet has been found in the Town Hall Houses. In the palace of Adad-nirari III, three bronze kohl sticks with castellated heads having been identified as Achaemenid period.

Assur

Like other Assyrian capitals, Assur was greatly destroyed during the battles of the century before. Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. The importance of the city thereafter is not clear, but much evidence indicate it was a flourishing city during the Achaemenid rule. After the Babylonian conquest by Cyrus the Great, the "Cyrus Cylinder" mentions Assur as one of the cities of which cult statues were returned. The Cyrus cylinder, also known as the Cyrus the Great cylinder, is a document issued by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great in the form of a clay ^[48] In 401 BC, Xenephon describes the city as

At the Assur Temple, two shrines have been identified as being built during 5th to 3rd century BC. ^[52] A few graves at the site also may have been belonged to the Achaemenid period. From the grave site, a pair of circular earrings with globules has clearly been identified as Achaemenid. ^[53] These earrings are similar to the silver earring found at Khorsabad, near Nineveh. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. In another grave, Haller dates grave number 811 as Achaemenid period. ^[54] The grave contained three bodies, a stamp-seal showing the goddess, Ishtar, standing on the back of a lion. This might indicate that Ashurism was still being practiced within the Assyrian population during the Achaemenid rule. The pre- Christian religions of Babylonia and Assyria are the earliest attestation of Ancient Semitic religion, in particular Mesopotamian mythology Other objects from the grave 811 include a bronze fibula; another earring, but gold rather than the earlier described silver; different kinds of beads of silver, agate, frit and glass; an alabastron; a bowl made of copper; and two pottery bottles. ^[54] It is not clear, however, if all the items are Achaemenid in date.

Tel ed-Daim

To the northeast of Kirkuk, the site of Tel ed-Daim shows significant evidence of Achaemenid rule. Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كه‌ركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; ^[55] A small fortified palace (most probably for a local governor) includes a bronze wall-plaques, a bronze snaffle-bit of a type well-known from Achaemenid contexts at Persepolis, kohl tubes with ribbed decoration tapering, and pottery. ^[56] The pottery in the palace show similarities with the pottery from Nimrud that has been identified as Achaemenid. ^[57]

Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project

In Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project, a few items have been identified as Achaemenid period. The project was located to the northwest of Mosul, in the upper Tigirs valley, and within the Assyrian heartland. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul In the Kharabeh Shattani site, various amounts of pottery have been dated Achaemenid. These include, four bowls of which have similarities of Achaemenid bowls in Susa and Pasargadae. ^[58] Other times include clay spindle whorls, two iron sickle blades, and a bronze plate optimistically identified as a horse’s forehead plaque. A bronze finger-ring with a crouching animal engraved on the bezel was also found in the site and is considered to be widespread in the Achaemenid empire. ^[59] Also in the project, a grave site excavated found bodies that included a conical kohl pot and a bronze pin with a castellated top. These objects are considered to be distinctive Achaemenid type. ^[60]

Assyria after the Achaemenid Period

Main articles: Adiabene and Osroene

Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic inscription reflect the continuous impact of the Assyrian language after the Achaemenid period. Adiabene (from the Αδιαβηνή Adiabene, itself derived from Aramaic syr ܚܕܝܐܒ Ḥaḏy’aḇ or Ḥḏay’aḇ) was Osroene (also spelled Osrohene, Osrhoene; Syriac:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē

In the late 4th century BC Alexander the Great led his Greco-Macedonian army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The empire's vast territory and numerous tributary peoples ensured that rebellion would be a constant problem. This new Greek Empire relied upon the administrative system put in place by the Persians to govern these new lands; consequently, the Assyrian lands of Athura and Mada were administrated as such by their own Satraps. When Alexander the Great died, the Greek successor state of the Seleucid Empire retained control of much of the Persian Empire.

Whilst Greek rule beyond the Euphrates was subject to constant and eventually successful Persian incursions, Assyria was forced to take the role of a frontier province in the later Persian dynasties against the expansions of the Selucids and later on the Romans. Greek rule in the East did not last long even though the cultural impacts did - by the mid-3rd century BC the Satraps, administrators of the various provinces in the Seleucid Empire began revolting against the Seleucid Empire in Persia and Bactria establishing their own domains. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. A temporary revival of Seleucid Power re-established Imperial authority in these regions in the late 3rd and early 2nd century BC but after which the Parthians soon came to incorporate the lands known as Assyria once again by the mid-2nd century BC.

Parthian rule aimed to emulate that of their Persian predecessors, the Achaemenids with a similar system of administration involving Satraps and smaller provinces. Indeed the main rebel behind the rise of Parthia from Seleucia was a Satrap himself. ^[61] On top of this, the Parthian Empire was more decentralized and power was shared amongst clan leaders,^[61] hinting at the possibility of the retention of the provinces. Mesopotamia became the Heartland of the Seleucid Empire with a new capital, Seleucia on the Tigris founded. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i For the Syrian seaport of the same name that figures in the travels of Saint Paul see Seleucia Pieria. As a result, much culture and knowledge was exchanged between the Greeks and the Assyrians. The invasions of Alexander the Great consisted not only of soldiers but scientists and Historians. ^[62]

Beginning in the 1st century BC, the Romans began expanding their Empire at the cost of the Parthians. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Initially the Nomadic military tactic of circling and shooting worked to deadly effect against the slow heavy moving infantry of the Romans. ^[63] In time however, superior technology and strategy drove the Parthians out of the Mediterranean and most of Asia Minor. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Parthians continued to resist Roman rule, invading and in turn being invaded by the Romans many times, with their capital Ctesiphon being sacked three times. For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire ^[64] The consequence of these bloody and inconclusive wars meant that the Assyrian provinces bore the brunt of the fighting, with Assyrian troops fighting for one side and then, at the change of the governing of the lands of Mada and Athura, fighting for the other side. Naturally such events served to undermine the Assyrians.

By the 2nd century AD under the Emperor Trajan, the Romans began to achieve the upper hand against the Parthians and established the Roman Province of Assyria along the Euphrates and Tigris. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Assyria was one of three provinces (Armenia Mesopotamia and Assyria created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C

See also

• Babylonia (Persian province)
• Media (Persian province)
• Assyria (Roman province)
• Mesopotamia (Roman province)
• Asuristan (Sassanid province)
• History of Mesopotamia

References

This article is part of the series on: History of the Assyrian people Early history Ancient Assyria (20th - 10th c. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Assyria was one of three provinces (Armenia Mesopotamia and Assyria created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C Mesopotamia was one of three provinces (besides Armenia and Assyria) created by the Roman emperor Trajan in AD 116 Asuristan ( Assyria) was a province of the Sassanid Empire ( 226 &ndash 651) Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The Assyrian people ( Aramaic: Āṯūrāyē; Akkadian: Aššūrāyu) are descended from the ancient Assyrians of Mesopotamia The Assyrian people ( Aramaic: Āṯūrāyē; Akkadian: Aššūrāyu) are descended from the ancient Assyrians of Mesopotamia Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture BC) Aramaeans (14th - 9th c. The Aramaeans (also Arameans) ( Aramaic / Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ, Ārāmāye' were a Semitic (West Semitic language group BC) Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 - 612 BC) Achaemenid Assyria (539 - 330 BC) Osroene (132 BC - 244 AD) Roman Syria (64 BC - 637 AD) Adiabene (15 - 116 AD) Roman Assyria (116 - 118) Asuristan (226 - 651) Syriac Christianity Syriac Christianity (since 325) Nestorian Schism (5th c. The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC Osroene (also spelled Osrohene, Osrhoene; Syriac:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Adiabene (from the Αδιαβηνή Adiabene, itself derived from Aramaic syr ܚܕܝܐܒ Ḥaḏy’aḇ or Ḥḏay’aḇ) was Assyria was one of three provinces (Armenia Mesopotamia and Assyria created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C Asuristan ( Assyria) was a province of the Sassanid Empire ( 226 &ndash 651) Syriac Christianity is a culturally and linguistically distinctive community within Eastern Christianity. The Nestorian Schism was the split between the Byzantine church of the West and the Assyrian church of the East in the 5th century. ) Emirs of Mosul (905-1383) Principality of Antioch (1098-1268) Ottoman Empire (1534-1917) Rise of nationalism Modern History Assyrian Genocide (1914-1920) Assyrian diaspora Independence movement (since 1919) Simele massacre (1933) Post-Saddam Iraq (since 2003)