Citizendia
Your Ad Here

A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects

Contents

History

As with other professions, teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified. In the same way that a carpenter would pass through the grades of apprentice and journeyman to attain the status of master carpenter when fully qualified by his guild, a teacher would become a master when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings, A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers These teaching guilds in various cities took on the identity "university" when granted a charter (by the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor in Europe's case), and students were admitted to the university and passed through its grades in ways directly analogous to those of the trade guilds.

Though higher education institutions date back to ancient times, such as Taxila and Nalanda in ancient India, the first higher education institutions to issue academic degrees (at all levels including bachelor, master and doctorate) were the medieval Madrasahs founded in the 9th century. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. Nālandā is the name of an ancient University in Bihar, India. A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. [1] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by the princess Fatima al-Fihri. The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (جامعة القرويين (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin Kairouyine Kairaouine Qairawiyin Qaraouyine Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records (and in previous U [2] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were formed in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral [3][4]

The origins of the doctorate in particular dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement An ijazah is a certificate used primarily by Muslims to indicate that one has been authorized by a higher authority to transmit a certain subject or text of Islamic knowledge Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Doctor of Laws ( Latin: Legum Doctor, LLD) is a Doctorate -level Academic degree in Law. Madhhab or Mazhab ( Arabic مذهب mæðhæb pl مذاهب mæðæːhıb) is an Islamic school of thought, or To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers A law school (also known as a school of law or college of law) is an institution specializing in Legal education. In some Educational systems undergraduate education is Post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's degree. See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law. A test or an examination (or "exam" is an Assessment, often administered on paper or on the computer, intended to measure the test-takers' or A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature For the iconographic subject see Christ among the Doctors In the scholastic system of education Legal education is the education of individuals who intend to become legal professionals or those who simply intend to use their law degree to some end either related to law " After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively. A Faqih (plural Fuqaha') (فقيه pl فقهاء is an expert in Fiqh, or Islamic Jurisprudence. The Master of Laws is an advanced Academic degree, or research degree and is commonly abbreviated LL This article is about an Islamic scholar Mufti can also refer to civilian dress. A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an Magister (also magistar, from lat: magister = Teacher) is an Academic degree used in various systems of higher education The meaning of the word professor ( Latin: professor, person who professes to be an expert in some art or science teacher of highest rank) varies [1]

In the medieval European universities, candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the quadrivium (mathematics, geometry, astronomy and music), together known as the Liberal Arts, and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts, from the Latin baccalaureus, a term previously usually used of a squire (i. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. e. , apprentice) to a knight. Further study, and in particular successful participation in and then moderating of disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from the Latin magister, teacher, entitling one to teach these subjects. For the iconographic subject see Christ among the Doctors In the scholastic system of education A Master of Arts ( Latin: Magister Artium) is a Postgraduate academic Master's degree awarded by universities in a large Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degrees in these subjects. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Today the terms "master," "doctor" (from the Latin - meaning literally: "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the Medieval university they were equivalent terms, the use of them in the degree name being a matter of custom at a university. (Most universities conferred the Master of Arts but, for instance, the highest degree was variously termed Master of Theology/ Divinity or Doctor of Theology/ Divinity depending on the place).

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (D. D. ), philosophy - Doctor of philosophy (D. Phil. , Ph. D. ) and medicine - Medicinæ Doctor (M. D. , D. M. )) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the D. D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).

The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine. The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The University of Paris used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. The historic University of Paris (Université de Paris first appeared in the second half of the 13th century The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the The University of St Andrews is the oldest University in Scotland and third oldest in the English-speaking world, having been founded between The University of Glasgow (Oilthigh Ghlaschu was founded in 1451 in Glasgow, Scotland and along with its contemporary institutions the University of St Andrews The University of Aberdeen is an Ancient university founded in 1495, in Old Aberdeen, Scotland. The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.

The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine, and law were known as "doctor". The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. D. ), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th and 19th Century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M. A Master of Arts ( Latin: Magister Artium) is a Postgraduate academic Master's degree awarded by universities in a large A. ). The practice of using the term doctor for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.

The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. The baccalauréat (bakaloʁeˈa often known in France colloquially as le bac or le bachôt, is an academic qualification which "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. Australia See also Education When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies.

In the past, degrees have also been directly issued by authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Britain, Lambeth Degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Lambeth degrees are Academic degrees conferred by the Archbishop of Canterbury under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 (25 Hen VIII c 21 (Eng Only the universities of Oxford and Cambridge still permit the D. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the Phil. (Oxford) or Ph. D. (Cambridge) to be conferred upon a student by an individual member of the faculty .

Examples of degrees

Diploma from Ukrainian University, 2005
Diploma from Ukrainian University, 2005

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term. For more information, see the article about the general term.

Abbreviations for degrees can place the level either before or after the faculty or discipline, depending on the institution. The Doctor of Audiology (AuD is an entry-level first professional degree for an Audiologist. North America Canada In Canada the PharmD program is offered in both English and French. Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional Doctor of Canon Law ( Latin: Juris Canonici Doctor; JCD) is the Doctoral -level Terminal degree in the studies of Doctorandus ( Latin: he who should become a doctor) is a Dutch Academic title according to the pre- bachelor - master The term all but dissertation (ABD is an unofficial term identifying a stage in the process of obtaining a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. The Doctor of Pastoral Theology (Abbreviated PThD for the Latin Pastoralis Theologiæ Doctor PThD is a theological Professional degree geared to provide The Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT DThP is an advanced professional degree for practitioners seeking to apply theological principles to their professional practice The Doctor of Education degree ( EdD or DEd) is a discipline-based doctorate that prepares the student for academic administrative clinical or research positions The Doctor of Professional Studies ( DProf or DPS) is a work-based professional doctorate pioneered by Pace University. The Engineering Doctorate scheme is a British postgraduate education programme promoted by the UK's Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council The Doctor of Technology (DTech degree is conferred upon candidates after having completed a course of study in technology and a project of lengthy duration in a technologically-related The degree of Doctor of Business Administration (DBA is a research doctorate The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA is a terminal applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration (government which focuses upon practice The Doctor of Ministry ( DMin) degree is according to The Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS a doctoral level degree oriented Doctor of Laws ( Latin: Legum Doctor, LLD) is a Doctorate -level Academic degree in Law. The Doctor of Project Management (DPM is a research-oriented professional doctoral degree offered by some Australian universities The Doctorate of Social Science is a higher qualification offered by select universities which serves as a doctoral level qualification specifically relating to academic work in the field Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral For example, DSc and ScD both stand for the (higher) doctorate in science. Various other abbreviations also vary between institutions, for instance BS and BSc both stand for 'Bachelor of Science'.

There are various conventions for indicating degrees and diplomas after one's name. In some cultures it is usual to give only the highest degree. In others, it is usual to give the full sequence, in some cases giving abbreviations also for the discipline, the institution, and (where it applies) the level of honours. In another variation, a 'rule of subsumption' often shortens the list and may obscure the chronology evident from a full listing. Thus 'MSc BA' means that the degrees conferred were - in chronological order - BSc, BA, MSc. The subsumption rule reflects the principle that a person of a given high status does not separately belong to the lower status.

For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, there is a standard list of abbreviations, but in practice many variations are used. The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents over 480 universities from Commonwealth countries Most notable is the use of the Latin abbreviations 'Oxon. ' and 'Cantab. ' for the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in spite of these having been superseded by (little used) English 'Oxf. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the ' and 'Camb. ' Other Latin abbreviations include St And. for the University of St Andrews, Exon. The University of St Andrews is the oldest University in Scotland and third oldest in the English-speaking world, having been founded between for the University of Exeter, Dunelm. The University of Exeter (usually abbreviated as Exon for post-nominals) is a University in the South West of for Durham University, Ebor. Durham University is a University in Durham, England. It was founded as the University of Durham (which remains its official and legal name for the University of York and Cantuar. The University of York is a Campus university in the city of York, England. for the University of Kent (formerly the "University of Kent at Canterbury"). The University of Kent is a plate glass campus University in Kent, England. Confusion results from the widespread use of 'SA' for the University of South Australia (instead of S. Aust. ) because 'SA' was officially assigned to the University of South Africa. For universities of different commonwealth countries sharing the same name, such as York University in Canada and the University of York in the UK, a convention has been adopted where a country abbreviation is included with the letters and university name. In this example, 'York (Can. )' and 'York (UK)' is commonly used to denote degrees conferred by their respective universities.

The doubling of letters in LL. B. , LL. M. , LL. D. is because these degrees are in laws, not law. The doubled letter indicates the Latin plural (genitive case) legum as opposed to the singular (genitive case) legis. Abbreviations for the degrees in surgery Ch. B. and Ch. M. are from Latin chiruguriae and often indicate a university system patterned after Scottish models. The combination of M. B. with Ch. B. arose from a need to graduate the students at the time of year allocated to graduation rituals, but the legal inability to confer the M. B. before they had been properly approved by professional regulatory bodies. Thus the Ch. B. was conferred first, and the M. B. was conferred later, after registration, and without ceremony. In recent times the two have come to be conferred together and are widely (mis)understood to constitute a single degree.

Some degrees are awarded jure dignitatis. That is, a person who has demonstrated the appropriate qualities to be given a particular office may be awarded the degree by virtue of the office held. It is another kind of earned—but not strictly academic—degree.

Degree systems by Regions

North and South America

Brazil

Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities normally graduate either with a Bacharel degree (equivalent to an American B.S. or B.A.) or with a professional degree (roughly modeled on the old German Diplom). A Bachelor of Science ( BS, BSc or BSc in the UK; less commonly S See also Diploma Diplom (from Greek Δίπλωμα Diploma) is an Academic degree in some European countries including

Bacharel degrees are awarded in most fields of study in the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, or natural sciences and normally take four years to complete (a bachelor's degree in Law requires an extra fifth year to be obtained). Professional degrees are awarded in state-regulated professions such as architecture, engineering, psychology, pharmacy, dental medicine, veterinary medicine, or human medicine and are named after the profession itself, i. e. one graduates with a degree of Engenheiro (engineer), Arquiteto (architect), or Médico (physician/surgeon) for example. Professional degrees are generally regarded as being of higher social standing than a Bacharel degree and are considered more academically demanding. A typical course of study leading to a first professional degree in Brazil normally takes five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course which requires six years.

In addition to the standard Bacharel and professional degrees, Brazilian universities also offer the Licenciatura degree, available for students who want to qualify as school teachers. Secondary school is a term used to describe an educational Institution where the final stage of compulsory schooling known as Secondary education, takes Licenciatura courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities, and natural sciences. Although Licenciatura courses also last 4 years, they are nonetheless considered to be of lower standing than a Bacharelado course. A lower degree of Tecnólogo (Technologist) is also available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years only.

Admission as an undergraduate student in most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as Vestibular. This is an article on University entrance exams in Brazil For the medical usage of the term see e Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as transferência interna), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.

Individuals who hold either a Bacharel degree or a professional diploma are eligible for admission into graduate courses leading to advanced master's or doctor's degrees. A graduate school or ("grad school" is a school that awards advanced degrees such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation, and possibly oral interviews. In most cases however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan and one faculty member must agree to serve as his/her supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program; The exception are the Natural Sciences post-graduate programs, that accepts students with very broad and/or vague research prospects (sometimes the prospect is given in promptu during the interview), preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies. In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of

Master's degrees normally take two years to obtain and are classified into academic master's degrees or professional master's degrees. Requirements for an academic master's degree normally include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically berween five and eight) and submitting a research thesis which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one external member who must be from another university or research institute; The emphasis of the thesis must be in its clarity and ease of understanding by future students, not in its originality. Professional master's degrees on the other hand normally involve taking a larger number of classes, and, in the case of engineering programs in particular, often completing a project as an intern in an engineering company and submitting a final project report. The most relevant differece to the international scenario is that, due to restrictive production goals set by government agencies, in most universities a Master degree is not only considered inferior to a Doctor degree but a pre-requisite for the admission in a Doctorate program.

Master's titles in Brazil normally include an explicit reference to the field of study in which they were awarded, e. g. one graduates with a degree of Mestre em Engenharia (Master of Engineering), Mestre em Economia (Master of Economics), and so on. The generic title Mestre em Ciências (Master of Sciences) is used sometimes though, especially in the natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, etc. ). The word profissional is normally added to the title to distinguish it from an academic master's degree, e. g. Mestre Profissional em Engenharia Aeronáutica (Professional Master in Aeronautical Engineering).

Doctor's degrees on the other hand normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete and are of a higher standing than a master's degree; With very few exceptions (namely, people with outstanding accomplishments in research), a Master degree or equivalent is required for admission in a Doctorate Program. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's theses, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.

Conventions for naming doctoral degrees follow similar rules to those used for master's degree, i. e. an explicit reference to the field of study is normally included in the title itself, e. g. Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), etc. , although a generic title like Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) may be occasionally used.

Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of São Paulo still award the title of Livre-Docente, which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German Habilitation, by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a Livre-Docência examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors. ( is a state in Brazil. It is the major industrial and economic powerhouse of the Brazilian economy Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries

Colombia

In Colombia, the system of degrees is a bit complicated. After completing their high school, or "bachillerato", students (called "bachilleres") can take one of two options. The first is called a "Profesional", which is similar to a Bachelor's Degree but requires from nine to eleven semesters of study. The other option is called a "Técnico"; this degree only three years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors.

After this, students, now called "profesionales" or "técnicos", can opt for higher degrees. The highest level in the country is the Doctorate, or "Doctorado", which is quite similar to the U. S. Doctorate. One step lower on the scale, we find the Master. This program takes two years to be completed, and gives the title of "Magíster". Finally, on the lower level is located the "Especialización". This program is very popular in the country, because it requires only one year to complete and because the student only acquires the technical knowledge, without the bulk of the theoretical subjects.

A strange situation in Colombia is that you may go directly to the "Doctorado" without having to take the "Master" or "Especialización".

United States

In the United States, since the late 1800s, the threefold degree system of bachelor, master and doctor has been in place, but follows a slightly different pattern of study than the European equivalents.

In the United States, most standard academic programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree (most often bachelor of arts, B. A. , or bachelor of science, B. A Bachelor of Science ( BS, BSc or BSc in the UK; less commonly S S. ), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often Master of Arts, M. A Master of Arts ( Latin: Magister Artium) is a Postgraduate academic Master's degree awarded by universities in a large A. , or master of science, M. A Master of Science ( Latin: Magister Scientiæ; abbreviated MSc, M S. ; both of these programs might be three years in length) and a further one or two years of coursework and research, culminating in comprehensive examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience, and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate (most often doctor of philosophy, Ph. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. D. ) for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete.

Some schools—mostly junior colleges and community colleges, but some four-year schools as well—offer an associate's degree for two full years of study, often in pre-professional areas. The term junior college refers to different educational institutions in different countries A community college is a type of Educational institution. The term has different meanings in different countries An associate degree is an Academic degree awarded by Community colleges Junior colleges four-year Universities, Business colleges This may sometimes be used as credit toward completion of the four-year bachelor's degree.

In the United States, there is also another class of degrees called "First Professional degree. A first professional degree is a type of Academic degree designed to prepare the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing practical skills over theory and analysis " These degree programs are designed for professional practice in various fields rather than academic scholarship. Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission (a notable exception being the PharmD program), and so represent at least about five total years of study and as many as seven or eight.

Some fields such as fine art, architecture, or divinity have chosen to name their first professional degree after the bachelor's a "master's degree" (e. g. , M.F.A., M.Div.) while the professional degrees in medicine (the M.D.) and law (the J.D.) are doctorates. In the United States, a Master of Fine Arts ( MFA) is a Graduate degree typically requiring two to three years of study beyond the Bachelor's degree In Christian Theology, the Master of Divinity ( MDiv, Magister Divinitatis in Latin) is the first Professional degree Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional [8] There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago. [1] It is important to recognize that first-professional degrees in these fields are different than research-oriented degrees and comparisons to the Ph. D. are problematic. [2]

Asia and Oceania

Australia

In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award in addition to that of Bachelor/Master's/Doctorate. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Diplomas are usually signified by a stole rather than an academic hood, the latter being used only for those of graduate status. An academic stole is a vestment used by various organisations to denote academic achievement A person with a diploma is termed a diplomate.

Australia has several different kinds of diplomas: Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas. See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described The system is not without anomalies, due largely to the different traditions of individual institutions which the Australian Qualifications Framework aims to regularise. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF provides the hierarchy of educational qualifications in Australia. A Diploma is usually equivalent to the first year of a Bachelor's degree, although a few have been similar to Bachelor of Arts degrees and permit direct admission to graduate programs.

An Australian Advanced Diploma is usually considered lower than a Bachelor degree, but may qualify its holder for advanced placement in a Bachelor program, direct admission to a Graduate Diploma course or (albeit rarely) direct admission to a Master's program.

Graduate Diplomas are always higher than a Bachelor degree, and usually require one year of full-time study. They are often an additional course taken after a standard Bachelor degree to introduce a specialization in a particular field or a new discipline. For example, Australian school teachers often study for a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science, then in an additional year complete requirements for a Graduate Diploma of Education, which qualifies them as school teachers. Some Graduate Diplomas are simply the first two semesters of a three- or four-semester Master's program. (In the past, the Graduate Diploma of Education was called the Diploma of Education. )

Some universities have issued Postgraduate Diplomas, which are always in the same discipline as the undergraduate degree, and generally no different from a Bachelor with Honours degree, which requires one year after a regular Bachelor degree.

Europe

Main articles: Bologna process and European Higher Education Area

In Europe, degrees are being harmonized through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor (Licence in France), Master and Doctor. The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards The European Higher Education Area ( EHEA) is the objective of the Bologna process - to create more comparable compatible and coherent systems of Higher education The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and Doctor ( gen: doctoris) means teacher in Latin. The word is originally an Agentive noun of the verb docēre ('teach' This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries.

This system is also currently in use in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located


Austria

In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:

With a few exceptions, the two-cycle degree system will be phased out by 2010. [9] Some of the established degree naming has, however, been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master's programmes.

France

In French universities, the academic degree system was quite complicated: the first degree was the baccalauréat (completed in fact after high school), then the two-year diplôme d'études universitaires générales (DEUG General Academic Studies Degree) or premier cycle (undergraduate education), then the one-year licence, the one-year maîtrise (master's degree), the two forming the second cycle (graduate education), the 1-2 years Diplôme d'Études Approfondies, Special Studies Degree and the three-year doctorate, the two forming the troisième cycle (postgraduate education). The French educational system is highly centralized organised and ramified The baccalauréat (bakaloʁeˈa often known in France colloquially as le bac or le bachôt, is an academic qualification which The verb license or grant license means to give permission The noun license is the document demonstrating that permission A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement With the Bologna Process, the system is now much more simple: baccalauréat, licence, master, a new two-year degree merging maîtrise and DEA, and doctorate. The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards Now, in French Universities, there is an "LMD" system which means licence-master-doctorat. After 3 years licence, 2 years Master is done and then 3-4 years doctorat programmes can be obtained.

Germany

Traditionally, the lowest degree in Germany has been the Magister and the Diplom (in science and engineering). Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. See also Diploma Diplom (from Greek Δίπλωμα Diploma) is an Academic degree in some European countries including This is somewhat misleading however, as the Diplom, before its gradual displacement by other, Anglo-Saxon-inspired degrees, was also the highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement A special kind of degree is the Staatsexamen. The de Staatsexamen is a German Government licensing examination that future Doctors Teachers Lawyers Judges Public It is a government licensing examination that future doctors, teachers, lawyers, judges, public prosecutors and pharmacists have to pass to be allowed to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for 5-8 years before they take the first Staatsexamen. Afterwards teachers and jurists go on to work in their future jobs for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs. The first Staatsexamen is equivalent to a M. Sc. or M. A.

Since 1999, the traditional degrees are gradually being replaced by Bachelor's (Bakkalaureus) and Master's (Master) degrees (see Bologna process). Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically take five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities are still resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. Universities must fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. In the future, the Diplom or Magister degree will no longer be awarded. See also Diploma Diplom (from Greek Δίπλωμα Diploma) is an Academic degree in some European countries including Magister (also magistar, from lat: magister = Teacher) is an Academic degree used in various systems of higher education

Doctorates are issued under a variety of names, depending on the faculty: e. g. , Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der medizinischen Wissenschaft (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom (University), Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. The doctoral promotion (e. g. to Dr. med, Dr. phil. and others) is equivalent to a Ph. D. degree and is therefore the highest academic degree to earn.

Sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is an academic qualification in Germany and Austria, that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorare. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil. ", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e. g. "PD Dr. habil. ") (Lecturer) the professorial positions (now called W2 and W3). Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.

Ireland

In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The National Diploma ( NDip) (Dioplóma Náisiúnta is a three year ab initio specialised Higher education qualification in a technology discipline offered A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and A higher diploma is an academic award in Hong Kong and Ireland. The new NQAI National Framework of Qualifications, adopted in 2003, replaced the National Dipoma with the Ordinary Bachelors degree. The National Qualifications Authority of Ireland or NQAI ( Údarás Náisiúnta Cáilíochtaí na hÉireann in Irish) was set up under the Qualifications The framework also clarifies that although the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree the learning outcomes are at the same level as for the Honours Bachelors Degree.

More technically, a diploma is a document attesting that its bearer has satisfied certain study requirements, as opposed to a degree being a status level in the academic community. For this reason, diplomas are 'awarded to' the recipient while degrees are 'conferred upon' the graduand who then becomes a graduate, or the graduand is "admitted to" a degree. Similarly a person 'has' a diploma, but a graduate 'is in' a status. It is also for this reason that study for diplomas can be at undergraduate or advanced level.

Italy

In Italy the lower academic degree is the diploma di maturità which is obtained at 18-19 years, after 5 years of study in a particular secondary school, focused on a certain subject (e. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution g. liceo classico, liceo scientifico, liceo linguistico, perito tecnico).

After the diploma one can enter university choosing a subject of study (e. g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture). Almost all university courses of study nowadays are subdivided in two parts. A first degree (called laurea breve) is obtained after 3 years of study and a short thesis on one subject. In Italy, the laurea is the main Post-secondary Academic degree. The second degree (called laurea magistrale) can be obtained proceeding with usually two additional years of study and specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e. g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc. ). The laurea magistrale is obtained after the discussion of a thesis (which usually involves some academic research or an internship in a private company).

Only few students continue their university career (after passing a public selection) to 3 further years of dottorato (equivalent to a Ph. D) mainly devoted to research (with some compulsory courses), the degree is also obtained after the discussion of a thesis on the results of the research done.

Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea magistrale one can attend a so-called Master, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and prices (one year of Master in Italy can cost more than the fees paid for the entire preceding university education), usually including a final internship in a company.

Norway

The content of this section was translated from the corresponding article in the Norwegian Wikipedia

Prior to 2003, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs within the Norwegian higher education system. In 2003, a reform was instituted to replace this older system with an "international system. "

For example, many degrees had titles that included the Latin term candidatus/candidata. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. These degrees were all retired in 2003.

The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the Stortinget, in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. The Storting ( Stortinget, literally "the Great Thing /Assembly" is the Norwegian Parliament, and is located in the capital city Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " It introduced standard periods of study and the titles master and bachelor (baccalaureus). A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and

The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt The latter corresponds to the former sivilingeniør degree (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering, which is but one of many degrees linked to the title sivilingeniør, which is still in use for new graduates who can chose to also use the old title). Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree," written philosophiæ doctor (instead of the traditional doctor philosophiæ). The title dr. philos. is reserved for those who qualify for a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

Poland

In Poland the system is similar to the German one. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland For instance, Warsaw University confers the following university degrees and titles:

The profesor (Professor's) title is officially conferred by the President of Poland. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries The President of the Republic of Poland ( Polish: Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, shorter form Prezydent RP) is the Polish Head of

Russia and some former USSR republics

There are three academic degrees in Russia and some former USSR republics. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as former Soviet republics, are the 15 independent nations that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

The lowest one is called diploma or specialist, is awarded after 4-7 years of college (university), requires writing a research thesis (usually 50-70 pages) and is roughly equivalent to US master degree.

Second level degree is called "candidate of ... sciences" (say, candidate of physical-mathematical sciences, or candidate of engineering sciences, candidate of historical sciences, etc). Kandidat nauk or Candidate of Sciences (Кандидат наук is a first post-graduate scientific degree in the former USSR and in some Post-Soviet This degree requires extensive research efforts, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually 5-20 publications suffice), and writing in-depth thesis (80-200 pages). Special scientific council of notable specialists in the field then reviews the thesis, the written opinions of several outside referees, and upon approval recommends the thesis for defense. Upon open defense in front of the same council the members of the council vote (it takes dominant majority - 67% - to pass) and then a chair writes a statement on recommending to award the degree "candidate of . . . sciences" to the defendant. All paperwork including thesis is then sent to so called Highest Attestation Commission which upon review makes final approval and then issues the diploma of "candidate of science". The "candidate of sciences" degree is roughly equivalent to US Ph. D. degree, although it requires longer research efforts, more publications (actually in US publications are not required for Ph. D. degree), wider exposure, and larger peer pool to pass.

Finally, there is a "doctor of ... sciences" (Doktor nauk) degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environment. Doktor nauk (доктор наук literally transtated as " Doctor of Sciences quot is a Higher doctorate degree the second and the highest post-graduate academic This degree is sought after by established scientists who made discovery-level contributions into certain field (formally - who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon, or development of new theory, or essential development of new direction, etc. This usually takes a decade or two of hard work after receiving "candidate of sciences" degree, an extensive list of publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (usually ~50-300+ papers), publishing a few monographs, extensive participation in various panels and peers (journals, conferences, grant/award panels, etc), and establishing a school of "candidates of sciences" under own supervision (so at least a few of your students have received "candidacy" degrees working with you on your discovery or in your new field/direction). It requires writing a deep and advanced thesis (usually 300-800 pages) and defending it in front of special council of prominent scientists in the field (or in adjacent fields if the field/discovery is completely new) in a similar to "candidate of sciences" defense manner. Upon voting all paperwork is again sent to the Highest Attestation Commission which upon approval awards the diploma of "doctor of . . . sciences".

There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to Habilitation in Germany, France, Austria, and some other European countries. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries

Currently there is also a trend in Russia to introduce a degree which is somewhat equivalent to bachelour degree (requires only 3-4 years of college) which however is not considered an academic degree.

Spain


Ukraine

Diploma from Ukrainian University, 2005
Diploma from Ukrainian University, 2005

United Kingdom

England and Wales

The standard first degree in England and Wales is the Bachelors degree with honours (e. History The Roman occupation of Britain was the first period in which the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit (with the exception A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and g. BA (hons) for arts subjects, BEng (hons) for Engineering and BSc (hons) for science). This usually takes three years' full-time study.

Honours degrees are usually categorised by one of four grades:

Students who do not achieve the standard for the award of honours may be given a pass degree which is without honours.

The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) awarded by the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to a British Honours degree

Some students study an integrated Master's, which is still a first degree. This takes four years of study and is usually designated by the subject, such as MEng for engineering, MPhys for physics, MMath for mathematics, and so on. A Master of Engineering ( Magister in Ingeniaria) often abbreviated M Grades are as above. The 4-year MEng degree in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering in the top UK universities, replacing the older 3-year BEng.

Unlike the case in the United States, due to earlier specialisation in education, Master's Degrees may take only one year of full-time study, and the usual amount of time spent working for a Ph. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the D. is three years full-time. Therefore, whilst the usual amount of time spent studying from Bachelors level through to doctorate in the United States is nine years, it is in most cases only seven in the United Kingdom, and may be just six, since a Master's degree is not always a precondition for embarking on a PhD.

Recently, there has been a significant rise in the number of courses offering "Postgraduate Diplomas", often in very specific, vocationally-related subjects. Many institutions (eg The Open University) offer these courses over one year, with an additional year required for the award of a Master's. The popularity of these courses is in part due to legislative requirements to demonstrate managerial competence in public-sector related functions.

A Foundation degree can be awarded for having completed two years of study in what is usually a vocational discipline. The Foundation Degree is a Vocational Qualification introduced by the Government of the United Kingdom in September 2001, which is available The Foundation degree is comparable to an associate's degree in the United States, and can be awarded by a University, or College of Higher Education.

Scotland

The standard first degree in Scotland is either a Master of Arts, for arts and humanities subjects, or a Bachelor of Science, for natural and social science subjects. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. A Master of Arts in Scotland is an academic degree in Humanities and Social sciences awarded by the Ancient universities of Scotland – A Bachelor of Science ( BS, BSc or BSc in the UK; less commonly S These can either be studied at general or honours levels. A general degree (MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years to complete. The general degree is not in a specific subject, but involves study across a range of subjects within the relevant faculty. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied, and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc).

This also reflects the broader scope of the final two years of Scottish secondary education, where traditionally five (or sometimes more) "Highers" are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh "A-Levels". It has long been argued that the standard of A-Levels is significantly above that of "Highers", and in certain cases, prospective students holding relevant A-Levels are admitted directly to the second year of a Scottish degree course. This practice was commonplace in the past, but evolutionary changes to the A-Level system, and evolving degree course structure are reducing the disparities. The A-level, short for Advanced Level, is a General Certificate of Education qualification in England, Northern Ireland and Wales, )

Honours for MA or BSc are classified into three classes:

Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours may be awarded a Special Degree

Postgraduate Master's Degrees may be offered in some subjects; however, unlike England and Wales, these are not designated Master of Arts, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated Master of Letters (MLitt); in natural and social sciences, as Master of Science (MSc). The Master of Letters (MLitt from the Latin magister litterarum) is a Postgraduate Master's degree. A Master of Science ( Latin: Magister Scientiæ; abbreviated MSc, M Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Research (MRes). In the usage of India, United Kingdom, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and some other countries the Master In the UK and Ireland, the Master of Research degree is a postgraduate degree available in a range of academic disciplines First doctoral research degrees in arts, science and humanities subjects are usually designated Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation.

Switzerland

Before the Bologna Process, because there are three official languages in Switzerland (German, French and Italian), the Universities' degrees were different, depending on the language. The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation In French-speaking universities, the first academic degree was the Licence: 4 years of study, equivalent to the Bachelor's degree in the UK or the USA. Licentiate (from Latin licentia docendi = permission/right to teach is the title of a person who holds an Academic degree called a License. A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The second degree was the diplôme d'études approfondies DEA or DESS: 1-2 years of study, equivalent to the Master's degree. In the Swiss-German Universities, the first degree was called Lizentiat, a 4-year degree, and the second was the Diplom nach dem ersten akademischen Grad. Licentiate (from Latin licentia docendi = permission/right to teach is the title of a person who holds an Academic degree called a License. See also Postgraduate Training in Education A postgraduate diploma is a Qualification awarded typically after a Bachelor's degree. In the Italian-speaking University, the first degree was called licenza, a 4-year degree; the second was the post laurea, which took 1-2 years. Licentiate (from Latin licentia docendi = permission/right to teach is the title of a person who holds an Academic degree called a License. See also Postgraduate Training in Education A postgraduate diploma is a Qualification awarded typically after a Bachelor's degree. The Doctoral's degree is the last stage at all the universities; it requires 3-5 years, depending on the field. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement

References

  1. ^ a b Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), “Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West”, Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (2): 175-182 [175-77] 
  2. ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, 1998, p. 242, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2
  3. ^ John Bagot Glubb:

    By Mamun's time medical schools were extremely active in Baghdad. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April The first free public hospital was opened in Baghdad during the Caliphate of Haroon-ar-Rashid. A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the As the system developed, physicians and surgeons were appointed who gave lectures to medical students and issued diplomas to those who were considered qualified to practice. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution The first hospital in Egypt was opened in 872 AD and thereafter public hospitals sprang up all over the empire from Spain and the Maghrib to Persia. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Maghrib (مَغْرِب is the fourth daily Salat in Islam, offered at sunset See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent

    (cf. Quotations on Islamic Civilization)
  4. ^ Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described An ijazah is a certificate used primarily by Muslims to indicate that one has been authorized by a higher authority to transmit a certain subject or text of Islamic knowledge
  5. ^ Note: In the U. S. and Europe, the M. D. Program of Study is a full-time four to five year course that requires a prior bachelor's degree. There are six or seven year "straight M. D. programs" after high school, similar to "straight Ph. D. programs," in some Universities
  6. ^ Note: In the U. S. , some pharmacy schools offer the PharmD as a six-year program which does not require a prior bachelor's degree and is more akin to a professional Master's degree, while currently there is debate among the pharmacy community and pressure from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy to make schools offer it as a 4-year post-bachelors program.
  7. ^ Note: In the UK and Australia, the M. D. degree is a graduate research degree distinct from the professional medical MBBS degree
  8. ^ Association of American Universities Data Exchange. Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh, Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education. Accessed May 26, 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). “Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients,” ‘’InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics’’ NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J. D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). ‘’Ethics Opinion 1969-5’’. Accessed May 26, 2008. (under “other references” discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate, and statement that the J. D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook. Accessed May 28, 2008. (the J. D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. ‘’U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education’’. Accessed May 26, 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U. S. and stating that the J. D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopedia Britannica. (2002). ‘’Encyclopedia Britannica’’, 3:962:1a. (the J. D. is listed among other doctorate degrees).
  9. ^ Wadsack, Ingrid & Kasparovsky, Heinz (2004), Higher Education in Austria (2nd ed. ), Vienna: Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, ISBN 3-85456-453-8, <http://www.fulbright.at/dokumente/us_citizens/general/hssystem_04e.pdf> 

See also

External links

Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. This is a list of the fields of doctoral studies, as used by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC at the University of Chicago in the United States For other degrees see Academic degree An ad eundem degree is a courtesy degree awarded by one University This article concerns the degrees of the University of Oxford. An external degree is a degree offered by a university to students who have not attended the institution Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges An honorary degree or a degree honoris causa ( Latin: 'for the sake of the honour' is an Academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding Lambeth degrees are Academic degrees conferred by the Archbishop of Canterbury under the authority of the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 (25 Hen VIII c 21 (Eng The Lisbon Recognition Convention is an international convention of the Council of Europe elaborated together with the UNESCO. This is a list of articles on Education organized by country A Education in Afghanistan Education in Albania Validation can be total or partial validation of foreign university and non-university studies and degrees
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic