Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter.

The word comes from the akademeia just outside ancient Athens, where the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's The gymnasium in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public Games It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, hence the expression "the groves of Academe". ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern

By extension Academia has come to connote the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In the seventeenth century, English and French religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The English adopted the form academy while the French adopted the forms acadème and académie.

An academic is a person who works as a researcher (and usually teacher) at a university or similar institution in post-secondary (or tertiary) education. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges He or she is nearly always an advanced degree holder who does research. See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described In the United States, the term academic is approximately synonymous with that of the job title professor although in recent decades a growing number of institutions are also including academic or professional librarians in the category of "academic staff. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The meaning of the word professor ( Latin: professor, person who professes to be an expert in some art or science teacher of highest rank) varies A librarian is an information Professional trained in Library and information science, which is the organization and management of information services or materials " In the United Kingdom, various titles are used, typically fellow, lecturer, reader, and professor (see also academic rank), though the loose term don is often popularly substituted. A fellow in the broadest sense is someone who is an equal or a comrade Lecturer is a term of Academic rank. In the United Kingdom lecturer is the name given to University Teachers in their first permanent The meaning of the word professor ( Latin: professor, person who professes to be an expert in some art or science teacher of highest rank) varies Academic organizations typically have a rather rigid set of Ranks Those listed below refer specifically to universities, although Colleges and other institutions may The term scholar is sometimes used with equivalent meaning to that of "academic" and describes in general those who attain mastery in a research discipline. It has wider application, with it also being used to describe those whose occupation was research prior to mass organized higher education.

Academic administrators are not typically included in this use of the term academic. An academic administration is a branch of University or College employees responsible for the maintenance and supervision of the institution and separate from the

Some sociologists have divided, but not limited, academia into four basic historical types: ancient academia, early academia, academic societies, and the modern university. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" There are at least two models of academia: a European model developed since ancient times, as well as an American model developed by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-eighteenth century and Thomas Jefferson in the early nineteenth century. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence In the United States academia tends to be politically progressive with 72 percent of faculty members identifying as liberal (87 percent at elite institutions). ^[1]

Contents 1 Structure 1.1 Qualifications 1.2 Academic conferences 1.3 Conflicting goals 1.3.1 Practice and theory 1.3.2 Town and gown 1.3.3 Commerce and scholarship 2 History 2.1 Ancient times 2.2 Early development 2.2.1 Early methods 2.2.1.1 Seven liberal arts 2.2.1.2 Encyclopedists 2.2.1.3 Abelard 2.2.1.4 Scholasticism 2.3 Rise of academic societies 3 The Idea of a University: John Henry Newman 3.1 Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 3.2 Recent economic changes 4 Academic publishing 4.1 History of academic journals 4.2 Current status and development 5 Academic dress 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Structure

Academia is usually conceived of as divided into disciplines or fields of study. An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of Knowledge which is taught or Researched at the college or university level These have their roots in the subjects of the ancient trivium and quadrivium, which provided the model for scholastic thought in the first universities in medieval Europe. In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. The quadrivium comprised the four subjects or arts taught in Medieval universities after the trivium. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university

The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have formed since medieval times; in general, academic fields have probably become more and more specialized since the Enlightenment, dividing their research into smaller and smaller areas. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Because of this, interdisciplinary research is often prized in today's academy, though it can also be made difficult by practical matters of administration and funding. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right (cognitive science is one recent example). Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior In short, there is an ongoing historical process behind the internal differentiation of the academy.

Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their administrative structure, being divided internally into departments or programs in various fields of study. An academic administration is a branch of University or College employees responsible for the maintenance and supervision of the institution and separate from the Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and faculty members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a president and several deans) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. University president is the title of the highest ranking officer within a University, within university systems that prefer that appellation over other variations such as In Academic administration, a dean is a person with significant authority over a specific academic unit or over a specific area of concern or both Also, the tenure system, a major component of academic employment and research, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought. Tenure commonly refers to life tenure in a job and specifically to a senior Academic 's Contractual right not to have their position terminated

Qualifications

Main article: Academic degree

The degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing Typically these are, in order of completion, associate's degree, bachelor's degree (awarded for completion of undergraduate study), master's degree, and doctorate (awarded after graduate or postgraduate study). An associate degree is an Academic degree awarded by Community colleges Junior colleges four-year Universities, Business colleges A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and In some Educational systems undergraduate education is Post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's degree. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement A graduate school or ("grad school" is a school that awards advanced degrees such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the Bologna process, as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords is to create the European higher education area by making Academic degree standards and quality assurance standards In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some professional and creative fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees. Professional studies is a term used to classify academic programs that are either applied and interdisciplinary or training for a Profession.

Academic conferences

Main article: Academic conference

Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on their research at an academic conference, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. An academic conference is a conference for Researchers (not always Academics to present and Discuss their work

Conflicting goals

Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. A salient example of conflict is that between the goal to increase services and the goal to reduce costs. The conflicting goals of professional education programs and general education advocates currently are playing out in the negotiation over accreditation standards.

Practice and theory

Academia is sometimes contrasted pejoratively with "practice", such as daily living, employment, and business. Practice or practise (verb form in British English is the act of rehearsing a behavior over and over or engaging in an activity again and again for the purpose of improving Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. A business (also called firm or an enterprise) is a legally recognized organizational entity designed to provide goods and/or services to Critics of academia say that academic theory is insulated from the 'real world', and thus does not have to take into account the real effects, results, and risks of actually performing the actions which academics study. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Academic insularity is sometimes referred to as the ivory tower. The term Ivory Tower originates in the Biblical Song of Solomon (74 and was later used as an Epithet for Mary. This often leads to a real or perceived tension between academics and practitioners in many fields of knowledge, particularly when an academic is critical of the actions of a practitioner. Depending on the degree of criticism, the practitioner's critique of academia could also be seen as anti-intellectualism. Anti-intellectualism describes a sentiment of hostility towards or mistrust of Intellectuals and Intellectual pursuits The balance to the view from the practitioner is that even if academia is insulated from practice in the real world, that does not mean academic study is valueless. In fact it is often seen that many academic developments turn out only much later to have great practical results. However, given that among practitioners there is a perception of academic insularity, it may increase the value and impact of the academician's studies and or opinion if they take that insularity into account when discussing or offering criticism of a practitioner or a practice in general.

Rather than seeing the relationship between practice and theory as a dichotomy, there is a growing body of practice research academics across a number of disciplines who use practice as part of their research methodology. Practice research is a form of academic Research which incorporates an element of practice in the Methodology or research output Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" For example the practice-based research network (PBRN) within clinical medical research. A practice-based research network (PBRN is a group of health care providers or medical clinics that are typically practicing in non-university based community environments that are networked Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Within arts and humanities departments, particularly in the UK, there are ongoing debates about how to define this emerging research phenomenon, and there are a variety of contested models of practice research (practice-as-research, practice-based and practice through research), see for example screen media practice research. The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative Screen media practice research is an emerging research area situated primarily within Media Studies, Communications Cultural Studies Art and Design Performing Arts departments

Town and gown

Main article: Town and gown

Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. Town and gown are two distinct communities of a university town; "town" being the non-academic population and "gown" metonymically being the In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents—instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their parents' residence—in order to retain control of local politics. Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film Breaking Away dramatizes such a conflict. Breaking Away is a 1979 film that tells the story of four teenagers in Bloomington Indiana who have graduated from high school and are not sure what they

Commerce and scholarship

The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree.

History

Ancient times

Main article: Academy

Academia takes its name from the Academy, a sanctuary outside the city walls of ancient Athens. An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's It was dedicated to the legendary hero Akademos and contained several olive groves, a gymnasium and an area suited for intimate gatherings. Akademos (Greek) (or Hekademos (Ἑκάδημος Academus, or Hecademus) was an Attic hero in Greek mythology. The gymnasium in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public Games It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual In these gardens, largely planted and enhanced with statuary by its previous owner Cimon, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers who believed Plato would enlighten them. Cimon (in Greek, Κίμων &mdash Kimōn) (510 Athens - 450 BC Citium, Cyprus) was an Athenian Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece These informal sessions came to be known as the Academy. Plato later further developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the Old Academy. Events By place Greece Antalcidas, commander of the Spartan navy actively assists Persia against Athens

Plato's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy. Arcesilaus (Ἀρκεσίλαος (ca 316-ca 241 BC was a Greek Philosopher and founder of the Second or Middle Academy &mdashthe skeptical Carneades, another student, established the New Academy. Carneades (Καρνεάδης (c 214 – 129 BC) was a radical Skeptic born in Cyrene and the first of the Philosophers to pronounce In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. Events By place Greece Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaims him "invincible" Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. This article is about Lyceum as school or as public hall Lyceum can also be short for Lyceum Theatre.

Early development

Main article: Academic Degree

In China there was a higher education institution called Shang Hsiang founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing Shang Xiang ( was a school founded in the Yu Shun (虞舜 era in China. Shun ( was a legendary 23rd -22nd century BC leader of ancient China, among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, whose half-century of rule was one of The 21st century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2100 BC to 2001 BC The Imperial Central Academy at Nanjing, founded in 258, was a result of the evolution of Shang Hsiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became Nanjing University. ( Chinese: 南京 Romanizations Nánjīng ( Pinyin) Nan-ching ( Wade-Giles Nanjing University ( colloquially 南大 Nándà is a national comprehensive university located in Nanjing, an ancient capital of China. In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. The Shūyuàn (书院 usually known in English as Academies or Academies of Classical Learning, were a type of school in ancient China. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. White Deer Grotto Academy ( sometimes translated as White Deer Cave Academy or White Deer Hollow Academy) was located at the foot of Wulou Peak in The Yuelu Academy (also as known as the " Yuelu Academy of Classical Learning ") is located on the east side of Yuelu Mountain in Changsha The first universities founded in ancient India were Taxila (Takshashila University) and Nalanda (Nalanda University) in the 7th century BC and the 5th century BC respectively, followed by Byzantium in the 5th century (in Constantinopolis and Athens). A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. Nālandā is the name of an ancient University in Bihar, India. Nālandā is the name of an ancient University in Bihar, India. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's The first universities in the Islamic world were founded in Fes (University of Al-Karaouine) in the 9th century and Cairo (Al-Azhar University) in the 10th century, while in western Europe, universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (جامعة القرويين (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin Kairouyine Kairaouine Qairawiyin Qaraouyine Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of As with other professions, teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified. In the same way that a carpenter would attain the status of master carpenter when fully qualified by his guild, a teacher would become a master when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings, A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers

Main article: Medieval university

Academia as a modern institution began to take shape in the Middle Ages (AD 350 to 1450). This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university At this time, the Roman Empire had crumbled and new regimes were beginning to take shape throughout Western Europe. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Europe had just come out of the Dark Ages, a period of mass illiteracy and loss of information. The only repositories of ancient knowledge were the Roman Catholic monasteries with hermits, monks and priests compiling all the world's knowledge into elaborate hand written books. This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. A hermit (from the Greek ἔρημος erēmos, signifying " Desert " "uninhabited" hence "desert-dweller" adjective "eremitic" MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities The earliest precursors of the colleges and universities were just being developed at these monasteries in order to redistribute the knowledge they had saved through the Dark Ages.

One had to go to a monastery to learn about ancient Greece and Rome and the wealth of information created in those societies. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Being schooled at a monastery meant academia was effectively restricted to men who wanted to become monks and priests. But by the 11th century, some Roman Catholic church leaders began a revolutionary campaign to proliferate the knowledge they had outside their groves of academe and into the greater society of early Europe. They believed that Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Homer, Sophocles and the others belonged to the people and not just to the religious. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Sophocles (ˈsɒfəkliːz Ancient Greek, sopʰoklɛ̂ːs circa A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The monks and priests moved out of the monasteries and went to the city cathedrals where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral

Most notable of these schools were in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, though others were opened throughout Europe. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, The city of Cambridge (ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England Studying at these schools, now called universities, meant sitting through a method of education called the lecture. A lecture is an oral Presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject for example by a University or College In a lecture, the master read aloud from manuscripts written by monks and priests while students sat at their pews reading along from their own handwritten copies of the massive amounts of texts. A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way A pew is a long bench used for seating members of a church 's congregation Only the master could determine if a student had achieved enough knowledge to graduate and organize lectures of their own. By the end of the 13th century, there were over 80 universities in Europe.

Early methods

Seven liberal arts

The seven liberal arts or Artes Liberales became codified in late antiquity through textbooks by Varro and Martianus Capella, who offered the standardized structure through which men (and it was men, by and large, for women were excluded) could visualize the world of learning. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. "Martianus" redirects here For the beetle Genus, see Martianus (beetle. The Liberal Arts consisted of the Trivium, the basic "three ways" of Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic, and the Quadrivium, the "four ways" of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music and Astronomy. In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. The quadrivium comprised the four subjects or arts taught in Medieval universities after the trivium. Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Philosophy and Theology were the all-embracing studies that encompassed the Liberal Arts, but philosophy in the early Middle Ages was largely a matter of dialectic. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The didactic allegory of the 5th-century pagan Martianus Capella's De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii ("The wedding of philology and Mercury") was of stupendous importance in fixing the unchanging formulas of Academia for the Latin West, from the Christianized Roman Empire of the 5th century until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became available in Western Europe in the 12th century.

The conceptual scheme established by Martianus Capella, given Christian readings and interpretations, remained largely in effect in western Academia, even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas, until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences.

Encyclopedists

Three medieval writers attempted to encompass the whole of Academia, the entire world of learning: Isidore of Seville, Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas Aquinas. Saint Isidore of Seville ( Spanish: es ''San Isidro'' or es ''San Isidoro de Sevilla'' Latin: latin ''Isidorus Hispalensis'' (c Bernard of Clairvaux, OCist ( 1090 - August 20, 1153) was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order

Abelard

In the 12th century, French philosopher Peter Abelard instituted his own revolution in the world of academia with the 1123 publication of his book, Sic et Non. He did away with the master reading from a text aloud in lectures and instead sat his students at desks in front of two separate texts contradicting each other. Instead of telling them which method was correct and which was wrong, he required his students to ask each other questions and come up with their own conclusions. Soon, almost all universities experimented with the use of the Abelard method.

Scholasticism

Main article: Scholasticism

In the early 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas revolutionized academia once again with his popularization of scholasticism. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Scholasticism employed the Abelard method of education but went further. Masters offered their students long, involved resolutions in examining two opposing texts and asked them to consider religious faith in their reasoning. Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in The resolutions were based on newly rediscovered philosophies of Aristotle which tried to balance out reason with faith in God.

Rise of academic societies

Main article: Learned society

Academic societies or learned societies began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. A learned society is an Organization that exists to promote an Academic discipline or group of disciplines A learned society is an Organization that exists to promote an Academic discipline or group of disciplines These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The Royal Society founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the American Revolution. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS is an organization dedicated to scholarship and the advancement of learning In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia.

The Idea of a University: John Henry Newman

A substantial part of what we now know as a "university" came from the philosophy and work of one man: John Henry Newman. Family John Henry Newman was born in London and was the eldest son of John Newman (d

Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

Academia began to splinter from its Christian roots in 18th-century colonial America. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the University of Pennsylvania. The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn) is a private University located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. For the first time, academia was established as a secular institution. Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions.

In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the University of Virginia and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The University of Virginia (also called UVa, UVA, Mr Jefferson's University, or The University) is a highly selective public research The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical humanism and the values introduced with the Protestant Reformation. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit.

The Academy movement in the U. S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the Old Northwest, in western New York State, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. For the Canadian territory see Northwest Territories. For the northwestern corner of the Lower 48 see Northwestern United States. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Ohio ( is a Midwestern state of the United States. As part of the Great Lakes region, Ohio has long been a cultural and geographical crossroads Michigan ( is a Midwestern state of the United States of America. The State of Indiana ( was the 19th US state admitted into the union The State of Illinois ( roughly ill-i-NOY is a state of the United States of America, the 21st to be admitted to the Union. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations.

During the Age of Enlightenment in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century In the beginning of the 19th century Wilhelm von Humboldt not only published his philosophical paper On the Limits of State Action, but also directed the educational system in Prussia for a short time. Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt ( June 22, 1767 April 8, 1835) government functionary Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. Humboldt's Ideal was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia.

Recent economic changes

In the 1980s and 1990s significant changes in the economics of academic life began to be felt, identified by some as a catastrophe in the making and by others as a new era with potentially huge gains for the university. Some critics identified the changes as a new "corporatization of the university. Corporatization is a more precise term for what often is called Privatization, for it almost always refers to a process by which formerly public assets or functions are sold " Academic jobs have been traditionally viewed by many intellectuals as desirable, because of the autonomy and intellectual freedom they allow (especially because of the tenure system), despite their low pay compared to other professions requiring extensive education. Tenure commonly refers to life tenure in a job and specifically to a senior Academic 's Contractual right not to have their position terminated And until the mid-1970s, when federal expenditures for higher education fell sharply, there were routinely more tenure-track jobs than Ph. D. graduates.

Now, by contrast, despite rising tuition rates and growing university revenues (especially in the U. Tuition means instruction or teaching. In American English, the term tuition is often used to refer to a fee charged for educational instruction S. ) well-paid professorial positions are rarer, replaced with poorly paid adjunct positions and graduate-student labor. In Linguistics, an adjunct is any word phrase or clause joined to another word or phrase to qualify or modify it People with doctorates in the sciences, and to a lesser extent mathematics, often find jobs outside of academia (or use part-time work in industry to supplement their incomes), but a Ph. D. in the humanities and many social sciences prepares the student primarily for academic employment. However, in recent years a large proportion of such Ph. D. 's—ranging from 30 percent to 60 percent—have been unable to obtain tenure-track jobs. They must choose between adjunct positions, which are poorly paid and lack job security; teaching jobs in community colleges or in high schools, where little research is done; the non-academic job market, where they will tend to be overqualified; or some other course of study, such as law or business.

Indeed, with academic institutions producing Ph. D. s in greater numbers than the number of tenure-track professorial positions they intend to create, there is little question that administrators are cognizant of the economic effects of this arrangement. The sociologist Stanley Aronowitz wrote: "Basking in the plenitude of qualified and credentialed instructors, many university administrators see the time when they can once again make tenure a rare privilege, awarded only to the most faithful and to those whose services are in great demand"^[2]

Most people who are knowledgeable of the academic job market advise prospective graduate students not to attend graduate school if they must pay for it; graduate students who are admitted without tuition remission and a reasonable stipend are forced to incur large debts that they will be unlikely to repay quickly. Stanley Aronowitz (born 1933 is professor of Sociology, cultural studies and Urban education at the CUNY Graduate Center. In addition, most people recommend that students obtain full and accurate information about the placement record of the programs they are considering. At some programs, most Ph. D. s get multiple tenure-track offers, whereas at others few obtain any; such information is clearly very useful in deciding what to do with the next 5–7 years of one's life.

Some believe that, as a number of Baby Boomer professors retire, the academic job market will rebound. Baby boomer is a term used to describe a person who was born during the Post-World War II baby boom between 1946 and 1964 However, others predict that this will not result in an appreciable growth of tenure-track positions, as universities will merely fill their needs with low-paid adjunct positions. Aronowitz ascribed this problem to the economic restructuring of academia as a whole:

In fact, the program of restructuring on university campuses, which entails reducing full-time tenure-track positions in favor of part-time, temporary, and contingent jobs, has literally "fabricated" this situation. The idea of an academic "job market" based on the balance of supply and demand in an open competitive arena is a fiction whose effect is to persuade the candidate that she simply lost out because of bad luck or lack of talent. The truth is otherwise. ^[3]

The effects of a growing pool of unemployed, underemployed, and undesirably employed Ph. D. s on the Western countries' economies as a whole is undetermined.

Academic publishing

Main article: Academic publishing

History of academic journals

Among the earliest research journals were the Proceedings of meetings of the Royal Society in the 17th century. Academic publishing describes the subfield of Publishing which distributes academic Research and Scholarship. An academic journal is a peer-reviewed Periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular Academic discipline is published The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. An anagram ( Greek anagramma 'letters written anew' passive participle of ana- 'again' + gramma 'letter' is a type of Word play Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements However, this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton, a sociologist, found that 92 percent of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. Robert King Merton ( July 4, 1910 &ndash February 23, 2003, born Meyer R The number of disputes dropped to 72 percent in the 18th century, 59 percent by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33 percent by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals.

The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today — nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the Duke of Buckingham was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "unicorn horn". George Villiers 2nd Duke of Buckingham, KG, PC, FRS (10 January 1628 – 16 April 1687 was an English Statesman and poet The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem A unicorn (from Latin unus 'one' and cornu 'horn' is a Mythological creature. It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any spider. Spiders are Predatory Invertebrate Animals that have two body segments, eight legs no chewing mouth parts and no wings Robert Hooke, the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the The spider promptly walked out of the circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research.

Current status and development

Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "publish or perish". Except for generalist journals like Science or Nature, the topics covered in any single journal have tended to be too narrow, and readership and citation have declined. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869 A variety of methods reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, peer review by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and curriculum vitae.

Andrew Odlyzko, an academician with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to Internet forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet preprints. Andrew Odlyzko is a mathematician who is the head of the University of Minnesota 's Digital Technology Center The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks A preprint is a draft of a Scientific paper that has not yet been published in a Peer-reviewed Scientific journal. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive.

Academic dress

Main article: Academic dress

Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 1300s and 1400s, perhaps because most early scholars were priests or church officials. Academic dress or academical dress is traditional Clothing for academic settings primarily tertiary and sometimes secondary A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies.

At some universities, such as the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, for example, outside the UK or U. S. , the custom is entirely absent. Students at the University of Trinity College at the University of Toronto wear gowns to formal dinner, debates, to student government, and to many other places.

In general, in the U. S. and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a mortarboard cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U. S. , bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally smaller versions of those worn by recipients master's and doctoral degrees.

Recipients of a master's degree in the U. S. or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. In the U. S. the hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary color, and is lined with the university's colors.

According to The American Council on Education “six-year specialist degrees (Ed.S., etc. The Education Specialist, also referred to as Educational Specialist, Specialist in Education, or Ed ) and other degrees that are intermediate between the master's and the doctor's degree may have hoods specially designed (1) intermediate in length between the master's and doctor's hood, (2) with a four-inch velvet border (also intermediate between the widths of the borders of master's and doctor's hoods), and (3) with color distributed in the usual fashion and according to the usual rules. Cap tassels should be uniformly black. ”^[4]

Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In the U. S. , doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown which may be tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear scarlet (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or Tudor bonnet that resembles a tam o'shanter, from which a colored tassel is suspended. This article is about the hat called a 'tam o' shanter' For the golf course in Niles Illinois see Tam O'Shanter Golf Course.

In modern times in the U. S. and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. Two notable exceptions are the Oxford and Sewanee, where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of the South is a private Coeducational liberal arts college located in Sewanee, Tennessee.

See also

• Medieval university
• Medieval university (Asia)
• Byzantine university
• Academic dishonesty
• Academic dress of the University of London
• Academic elitism
• Academic freedom
• Academic writing
• Education
• List of academic disciplines
• List of fields of doctoral studies
• Scholarly method
• College rivalry
• Scientific method
• Study
• Sophism
• Pseudoscholarship
• Pseudoscience

References

External links

• Bibliography on the history of the university, provided by Palinurus: The Academy and the Corporation, a web site from the University of California, Santa Barbara
• An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide
• 'Magistri et Scholares' - Academic News and Resources
• Academia and web 2. The University of California Santa Barbara ( UCSB) is a selective research-oriented public university located on the Pacific Ocean in Santa Barbara County California 0

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