Biruni on a 1973 post stamp commemorating his one thousandth anniversary
Title:Abu-Rayhan Biruni
Main interests:Anthropology, astrology, astronomy, chemistry, geodesy, geology, history, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, pharmacology, physics, psychology, science
Notable ideas:Father of anthropology, geodesy and Indology. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Events By Place Africa The Fatimids move their capital to Cairo. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life In Twelver Shi'a Islam, the Principles of the Religion ( Usūl al-Dīn) are the five main theological beliefs that Shi'a Muslims must possess Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Founder of experimental mechanics and experimental astronomy. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Pioneer of experimental psychology. Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Contributed to many other fields of knowledge.
Works:Ta'rikh al-Hind, The Mas'udi Canon, Understanding Astrology, and many other books
Influences:Aristotle, Ptolemy, Aryabhata, Muhammad, Brahmagupta, Rhazes, al-Sijzi, Abu Nasr Mansur, Avicenna
Influenced:Al-Sijzi, Avicenna, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini, Zakariya al-Qazwini, Maragha observatory, Islamic science, Islamic philosophy

Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī (September 15, 973 in Kath, KhwarezmDecember 13, 1048 in Ghazni) was a Persian[1][2][3] scholar[4] of the 11th century. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Events By Place Africa The Fatimids move their capital to Cairo. Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Ghazni City ( - Ğaznī; Ghazna and Ghaznīn are the old names for Ghazni layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as

He was a scientist and physicist, an anthropologist and psychologist, an astronomer, a chemist, a critic of alchemy and astrology, an encyclopedist and historian, a geographer and traveller, a geodesist and geologist, a mathematician, a pharmacist and physician, an Islamic philosopher and Shia theologian, and a scholar and teacher, and he contributed greatly to all of these fields. A physicist is a Scientist who studies or practices Physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or

He was the first Muslim scholar to study India and the Brahminical tradition,[5] and has been described as the father of Indology,[6] the father of geodesy, and "the first anthropologist". This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of [7] He was also one of the earliest leading exponents of the experimental scientific method,[8] and was responsible for introducing the experimental method into mechanics,[9] the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena,[10] and a pioneer of experimental psychology. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. [11]

George Sarton, the father of the history of science, described Biruni as "One of the very greatest scientists of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all times. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. "[12] A. I. Sabra desribed Biruni as "One of the great scientific minds in all history. Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. "[13]

The Al-Biruni crater, on the Moon, is named after Biruni. Al-Biruni is an Impact crater that lies on the far side of the Moon, just beyond the eastern limb Tashkent Technical University (formerly Tashkent Polytechnic Institute) is also named after Abu Rayhan al-Biruni.

## Biography

He was born in Khwarazm (formerly north-eastern part of the Persian Samanid dynasty) presently in Khiva, Uzbekistan. Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman Khiva ( Uzbek: Xiva, Хива; Хива Khiva; Persian: خیوه Khiveh) Alternative or historical names include Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly He studied mathematics and astronomy under Abu Nasr Mansur. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq (c 960 - 1036 was a was a Persian Muslim mathematician.

He was a colleague of the fellow Persian Muslim philosopher and physician Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), the historian, philosopher and ethicist Ibn Miskawayh, in a university and science center established by prince Abu al-Abbas Ma'mun Khawarazmshah. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه He also travelled to South Asia or Central Asia (Modern Day Afghanistan) with Mahmud of Ghazni (whose son and successor Masud was, however, his major patron), and accompanied him on his campaigns in India (in 1030), learning Indian languages, and studying the religion and philosophy of its people. Mahmud of Ghazni (محمود غزنوی Maḥmūd-e Ghaznawī ( November 2, 971 - April 30, 1030) also known as Yāmīn India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country There, he also wrote his Ta'rikh al-Hind ("Chronicles of India"). Biruni wrote his books in Arabic and his native language Persian, though he knew no less than four other languages: Greek, Sanskrit, Syriac, and possibly Berber. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today [1]

He was buried in Ghazni in Afghanistan. Ghazni City ( - Ğaznī; Ghazna and Ghaznīn are the old names for Ghazni Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت,

## Works

A statue of Biruni adorns the southwest entrance of Laleh Park in Tehran, Iran. Laleh Park ( Pârk-e Laleh, formerly called Park-e Farah after Farah Diba) is a large recreation area of the Iranian capital Tehran Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Biruni's works number 146 in total. These include 35 books on astronomy, 4 on astrolabes, 23 on astrology, 5 on chronology, 2 on time measurement, 9 on geography, 10 on geodesy and mapping theory, 15 on mathematics (8 on arithmetic, 5 on geometry, 2 on trigonometry), 2 on mechanics, 2 on medicine and pharmacology, 1 on meteorology, 2 on mineralogy and gems, 4 on history, 2 on India, 3 on religion and philosophy, 16 literary works, 2 books on magic, and 9 unclassified books. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. Definition A chronology may be either relative &mdashthat is locating related events relative to each other&mdashor ''absolute'' &mdashlocating For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Islamic literature refers to literature written with an Islamic perspective in any language Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and Among these works, only 22 have survived, and only 13 of these works have been published. [14] 6 of his surviving works are on astronomy. [15] His extant works include:

• Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - a compendium of India's religion and philosophy
• The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information. The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries ( کتاب الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية ar-Latn Kitāb al-āthār al-bāqiyyah an al-qurūn al-khāliyyah
• The Mas'udi Canon (Persian قانون مسعودي) - an extensive encyclopedia on astronomy, geography, and engineering, named after Mas'ud, son of Mahmud of Ghazni, to whom he dedicated
• Understanding Astrology (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian
• Pharmacy - about drugs and medicines
• Gems (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) about geology, minerals, and gems, dedicated to Mawdud son of Mas'ud
• Astrolabe
• A historical summary book
• History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father
• History of Khawarazm

## Astronomy

An illustration from Biruni's Persian book. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Mahmud of Ghazni (محمود غزنوی Maḥmūd-e Ghaznawī ( November 2, 971 - April 30, 1030) also known as Yāmīn It shows different phases of the moon. Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth

Will Durant wrote the following on al-Biruni's contributions to Islamic astronomy:

"He wrote treatises on the astrolabe, the planisphere, the armillary sphere; and formulated astronomical tables for Sultan Masud. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of He took it for granted that the earth is round, noted “the attraction of all things towards the center of the earth,” and remarked that astronomic data can be explained as well by supposing that the earth turns daily on its axis and annually around the sun, as by the reverse hypothesis. The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC in ancient Greek philosophy and possibly ancient Indian philosophy. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. "[16]

### Experimental observations

Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study He supposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of numerous nebulous stars. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter A nebula (from Latin: "mist" pl nebulae or nebulæ, with ligature or nebulas) is an Interstellar cloud of A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth In Khorasan, he observed and described the solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse. Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the [8]

In 1031, Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi (Latinized as Canon Mas’udicus),[17] in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the solar apogee and the precession are not identical. In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from Precession refers to a change in the direction of the axis of a rotating object Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured [18][19]

Al-Biruni also introduced a new method of observation called the "three points observation". Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A later Muslim polymath astronomer, Taqi al-Din, described the three points as "two of them being in opposition in the ecliptic and the third in any desired place. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year " Prior to al-Biruni, astronomers used the relatively inaccurate method of Hipparchus who used the intervals of seasons for calculating solar parameters. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic A season is one of the major divisions of the Year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in Weather. Al-Biruni's new "three points observation" was an important contribution to practical astronomy, and was still used six centuries later by Taqi al-Din, Tycho Brahe and Nicolaus Copernicus to calculate the eccentricity of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the apogee. Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe ( December 14 1546 &ndash October 24 1601) was a Danish nobleman In Astrodynamics, under standard assumptions, any Orbit must be of Conic section shape In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from [20]

### Instruments

Biruni invented a number of astronomical instruments. He wrote the first treatises on the planisphere and the orthographical astrolabe, as well as a treatise on the armillary sphere, and he was able to mathematically determine the direction of the Qibla from any place in the world. Orthographic projection is a Map projection of Cartography. Like the Stereographic projection and Gnomonic projection, Orthographic The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during [18][21] He also wrote the earliest treatise on the sextant. This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant. [22]

He also invented an early hodometer,[23] and the first mechanical lunisolar calendar computer which employed a gear train and eight gear-wheels. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing A lunisolar calendar is a Calendar in many Cultures whose date indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar Year. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket [24] These were early examples of fixed-wired knowledge processing machines. A wire is a single usually cylindrical, elongated string of drawn Metal. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity [25]

In his Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows, he explained the calculation of Salah prayer times according to the shadow cast by the gnomon of a sundial. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and The gnomon is the part of a Sundial that casts the Shadow. Gnomon (γνώμων is an Ancient Greek word meaning "indicator" "one who A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. [26]

The first description of an "observation tube" is found in a work of Biruni, in a section "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon. " Though these early observation tubes did not have lenses, they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating light inteference. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 " These observation tubes were later adopted in Latin-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the telescope. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. [27]

### Theories

In 1030, Biruni discussed the Indian heliocentric theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Indica. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Daivajna Varāhamihira ( Devanagari: वराहमिहिर 505 &ndash 587 also called Varaha or Mihira was an Indian Astronomer, Mathematician Biruni noted that the question of heliocentricity was a philosophical rather than a mathematical problem. [28]

Abu Said al-Sijzi, a contemporary of Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Biruni did not reject. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. [29] Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,[30] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other [28] He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:[18][21]

"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution. "

Biruni also wrote the following on al-Sijzi's heliocentric astrolabe called the "Zuraqi":[31]

"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [. . . ] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it. "

### Refutation of astrology

The first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology was given by al-Biruni in the 11th century. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. [32] In a later work, he wrote a refutation of astrology. His reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox Islam. In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [33]

## Earth sciences

1973 USSR stamp commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

Biruni made a number of contributions to the Earth sciences. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet In particular, he is regarded as the father of geodesy,[7][34] and has made significant contributions to cartography, geography, geology and mineralogy. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals

### Cartography

By the age of 22, he had written several short works, including a study of map projections, Cartography, which included a method for projecting a hemisphere on a plane. A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe

### Geodesy and Geography

At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarazm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Khwarezm were a series of States centered on the Amu Darya River delta of the Al-Biruni also solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The circumference is the distance around a closed Curve. Circumference is a kind of Perimeter. [18][35] His estimate of 6,339. 9 km for the Earth radius was only 16. The Earth 's shape like that of all major Planets approximates a Sphere. 8 km less than the modern value of 6,356. 7 km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location. Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. In Geography, a plain is an area of land with relatively low relief — meaning that it is flat A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak [36]

John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive:

"Important contributions to geodesy and geography were also made by Biruni. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation. In Trigonometry and Geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from known points at either He found the radius of the earth to be 6339. The Earth 's shape like that of all major Planets approximates a Sphere. 6 km, a value not obtained in the West until the 16th century. His Masudic canon contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge. "[8]

In mathematical geography, Biruni, around 1025, was the first to describe a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere. The azimuthal equidistant projection is a particular Map projection. In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " [37] He was also regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and western Indian subcontinent. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of valleys, and expanse of the horizon, in The Chronology of the Ancient Nations. A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The horizon ( Ancient Greek ὁ ὁρίζων, /ho horídzôn/ from ὁρίζειν, "to limit" is the apparent line that separates [38]

He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Planetary habitability is the measure of a Planet 's or a Natural satellite 's potential to develop and sustain Life. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the Earth's surface is habitable by humans, and also argued that the shores of Asia and Europe were "separated by a vast sea, too dark and dense to navigate and too risky to try" in reference to the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions [38]

### Geology

Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:

"But if you see the soil of India with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit The geological history of India started with the geological evolution of rest of the Earth i "[39]

### Mineralogy

Biruni's Kitab al-Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) described minerals such as stones and metals in depth, and was regarded as the most complete book on mineralogy in his time. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals He conducted hundreds of experiments to gauge the accurate measurements of items he catalogued, and he often listed them by name in a number of different languages, including Arabic, Persian, Greek, Syriac, Hindi, Latin, and other languages. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In the Book of Precious Stones, he catalogued each mineral by its color, odor, hardness, density and weight. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Hardness refers to various properties of Matter in the Solid phase that give it high resistance to various kinds of shape change when Force The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object The weights for many of these minerals he measured were correct to three decimal places of accuracy, and were almost as accurate as modern measurements for these minerals. The precision of a value describes the number of digits that are used to express that value [40]

## Philosophy of science

### Scientific method

In early Islamic philosophy, Biruni discussed the philosophy of science and introduced an early scientific method in nearly every field of inquiry he studied. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Inquiry or enquiry is any process that has the aim of augmenting Knowledge, resolving Doubt, or solving a Problem. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, Kitab al-Jamahir (Book of Precious Stones), he is "the most exact of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops comparative sociology as a scientific method in the field. Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals The term exact science refers to fields of Science that are capable of accurate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Comparative sociology generally refers to sociological analysis that involves comparison of Social processes between Nation-states, or across different types [41] He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into mechanics,[9] the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena,[10] and a pioneer of experimental psychology. Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. [11]

Unlike his contemporary Avicenna's scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work", Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or "[41] In his debate with Avicenna, Biruni made the first real distinction between a scientist and a philosopher, referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist (see Natural philosophy below). A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language [42]

Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and random errors, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers. Systematic errors are Biases in Measurement which lead the situation where the Mean of many separate measurements differs Significantly In Statistics and optimization, the concepts of statistical error and residual are easily confused with each other "[43] He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the constant sought", whether an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate. Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts disciplines and subject matters. In Mathematics and Statistics, the arithmetic Mean (or simply the mean) of a list of numbers is the sum of all the members of the list divided Estimation is the calculated Approximation of a result which is usable even if Input data may be incomplete or uncertain. "[44]

### Natural philosophy

Biruni and Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who are regarded as two of the greatest polymaths in Persian history, were both colleagues and knew each other since the turn of the millennium. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Biruni later engaged in a written debate with Avicenna, with Biruni criticizing the Peripatetic school for its adherence to Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy, while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to Biruni's criticisms in writing. Debate ( American English) or debating ( British English) is a formal method of interactive and position representational Argument. The Peripatetics were members of a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from [45]

This debate has been preserved in a book entitled al-As'ila wal-Ajwiba (Questions and Answers), in which al-Biruni attacks Aristotle's theories on physics and cosmology, and questions almost all of the fundamental Aristotelian physical axioms. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject For example, he rejects the notion that heavenly bodies have an inherent nature and asserts that their "motion could very well be compulsory"; maintains that "there is no observable evidence that rules out the possibility of vacuum"; and states that there is no inherent reason why planetary orbits must be circular and cannot be elliptical. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. An intrinsic property is a property that an objected or a thing has of itself independently of other things including its context Evidence in its broadest sense includes anything that is used to determine or demonstrate the Truth of an assertion This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner. In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star For other meanings of the term "orbit" see Orbit (disambiguation In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics a circular In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 He also argues that "the metaphysical axioms on which philosophers build their physical theories do not constitute valid evidence for the mathematical astronomer. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language " This marks the first real distinction between the vocations of the philosopher-metaphysician (which he labelled Aristotle and Avicenna as) and that of the mathematician-scientist (which al-Biruni viewed himself as). A vocation is an occupation for which a person is suited trained or qualified Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices In contrast to the philosophers, the only evidence that al-Biruni considered reliable were either mathematical or empirical evidence, and his systematic application of rigorous mathematical reasoning later led to the mathematization of Islamic astronomy and the mathematization of nature. Empirical research is any research that bases its findings on direct or indirect Observation as its test of Reality. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. [42]

Biruni began the debate by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens, with his first question criticizing the Aristotelian theory of gravity for denying the existence of levity or gravity in the celestial spheres, and the Aristotelian notion of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotle 's chief cosmological treatise it contains his astronomical theory The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " In Physics, circular motion is Rotation along a Circle: a circular path or a circular Orbit. An intrinsic property is a property that an objected or a thing has of itself independently of other things including its context [45] Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the heavens, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that space has only six directions. Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another The fourth question deals with the continuity and discontinuity of physical bodies, while the fifth criticizes the Peripatetic denial of the possibility of there existing another world completely different from the world known to them. In Physics, a physical body (sometimes called simply a body or even an object) is a collection of Masses taken to be one "The world " is a proper noun for the planet Earth envisioned from an Anthropocentric or Human Worldview, as a place [46] In his sixth question, Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the celestial spheres having circular orbits rather than elliptic orbits. In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " For other meanings of the term "orbit" see Orbit (disambiguation In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics a circular In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the heavens begins from the right side and from the east, while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the fire element being spherical. The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST internal designation HT-7U is an experimental Superconducting Tokamak Magnetic fusion energy Fire has been an important part of many cultures and religions from pre-history to modern day and was vital to the development of civilization "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe The ninth question concerns the movement of heat, and the tenth question concerns the transformation of elements. In Physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is Energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in Temperature [47]

The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by radiation reflecting off a flask filled with water, and the twelfth concerns the natural tendency of the classical elements in their upward and downward movements. Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy The Flux Advanced Security Kernel ( FLASK) is an Operating system security architecture that provides flexible support for security policies Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. The thirteenth question deals with vision, while the fourteenth concerns habitation on different parts of Earth. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Habitation at Port-Royal was an early French colonial settlement and is presently a National Historic Site located at Port Royal in the Canadian province of EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 His fifteenth question asks how two opposite squares in a square divided into four can be tangential, while the sixteenth question concerns vacuum. Classification A square (regular Quadrilateral) is a special case of a Rectangle as it has four right angles and equal parallel sides For the tangent function see Trigonometric functions. For other uses see Tangent (disambiguation. This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of ice floating on water. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia [48]

After Avicenna responded to the questions, Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on behalf of Avicenna. [45]

## Physics

### Astrophysics

In astrophysics and the celestial mechanics field of physics, Biruni described the Earth's gravitation as:[18]

"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth. Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another "

He also discovered that gravity exists within the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres, and he criticized Aristotle's views of them not having any levity or gravity and of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Physics, circular motion is Rotation along a Circle: a circular path or a circular Orbit. The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent [45]

### Experimental mechanics

Biruni was the first to apply experimental scientific methods to mechanics, especially the fields of statics and dynamics, particularly for determining specific weights, such as those based on the theory of balances and weighing. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Statics is the branch of Mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads ( Force, torque/moment) on Physical systems in Static equilibrium The specific weight (also known as the unit weight) is the Weight per unit Volume of a material or \gamma = \rho \ g A weighing scale (usually just "scale" in common usage except in Australian English where "scales" is more common is a Measuring instrument for [9]

In the dynamics and kinematics fields of mechanics, Biruni was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, which is part of Newton's second law of motion. Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the [8]

In statics, Biruni measured the specific gravities of eighteen gemstones, and discovered that there is a correlation between the specific gravity of an object and the volume of water it displaces. Statics is the branch of Mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads ( Force, torque/moment) on Physical systems in Static equilibrium Relative density, sometimes called specific density, is the Ratio of the Density of a substance to the density of a given reference material A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash The volume of any solid plasma vacuum or theoretical object is how much three- Dimensional space it occupies often quantified numerically [49] He also introduced the method of checking tests during experiments, measured the weights of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between freshwater and saline water, and between hot water and cold water. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object Freshwater is a word that refers to bodies of water such as Ponds lakes rivers and streams containing low concentrations of dissolved Salts and other Total dissolved Saline water is a general term for Water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved Salts ( NaCl) [50]

During his experiments, he invented the conical measure,[51] in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding metals, which are very close to modern measurements. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A conical measure is a type of Laboratory glassware which consists of a conical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the easy pouring of liquids and graduated markings on In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across [50]

### Optics

In optics, Biruni was one of the first, along with Ibn al-Haytham, to discover that the speed of light is finite. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Biruni was also the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. [8][52]

## Social sciences

### Anthropology

In the social sciences, Biruni has been described as "the first anthropologist". The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of [7] He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations. [53] Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [54]

Al-Biruni developed a sophisticated methodology for his anthropological studies. Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" For example, he wrote the following in the opening passages of his Indica:

"No one will deny that in questions of historic authenticity hearsay does not equal eyewitness; for in the latter the eye of the observer apprehends the substance of that which is observed, both in the time when and in the place where it exists, whilst hearsay has its peculiar drawbacks. "[55]

He was also aware that there are limitations to eye-witness accounts:

"The object of eye-witness can only be actual momentary existence, whilst hearsay comprehends alike the present, the past and the future"[55]

### Experimental psychology

In Islamic psychology, al-Biruni was a pioneer of experimental psychology, for his use of empirical observation and experimentation in his discovery of the concept of reaction time, which he described as follows:[11]

"Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves. A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about a Crime or dramatic event through their Senses (e Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Reaction time (RT is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Stimulation is the action of various agents ( stimuli) on Muscles Nerves or a sensory end organ by which activity is evoked especially the nervous Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. In Physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. "

### History

By the age of 27, in the year 1000, he had written a book called Chronology which referred to other works he had completed (now lost) that included one book about the astrolabe, one about the decimal system, four about astrology, and two about history. Definition A chronology may be either relative &mdashthat is locating related events relative to each other&mdashor ''absolute'' &mdashlocating The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology

In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (Researches on India), he was the first to distinguish between the historical method and the scientific method. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena He also discussed more on his idea of history in another work, The Chronology of the Ancient Nations. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology [56]

### Indology

Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Biruni (973-1048). History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (Researches on India), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors For information on only the Major religions in India see Major religions in India. [56] Biruni is now regarded as the father of Indology. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies [6]

## Theology

### Islamic theology

In theology, Biruni was a follower of the Shia school of Islamic theology. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. [57]. His religious affiliations is clear in his book 'The Chronology Of Ancient Nations'. [58]. He refers to 'Ali ibn Abi Talib as 'the Prince of the Believers' while not doing the same for Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. He places great emphasise on the commemoration of the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali going into detail about the event and rejects the Sunni hadith that promotes fasting on the day of Ashura. He also refers to the murderer of Ali as the cursed while not doing the same with the killer of Umar. He mentions the birth and death of Shia Imams, Fatima daughter of Muhammad and Khadija, Muhammad's wife. [59] He was critical of Mutazili theologians, particularly al-Jahiz and Zurqan, and he also criticized Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi's sympathy for Manichaeanism. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mutazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating [60] There is no evidence that al-Biruni was an Ash'ari as some have claimed. [61]

Biruni also assigned to the Qur'an a separate and autonomous realm of its own and held that:[62]

"[the Qur'an] does not interfere in the business of science nor does it infringe on the realm of science. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "

He also argued that the possession of intellect makes humans superior to animals and that God "placed humans as stewards over Earth and other terrestrial life-forms. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. A steward (from Old English stíweard stiȝweard, from stiȝ "hall household" + weard " Warden, keeper" corresponding EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 " He also considered hearing and sight to be the two most important senses, as they allow humans to "observe the signs of God's divine wisdom in his creations" and "receive the word of God and his command. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields "[63]

### Comparative religion

In religious education, Biruni was a pioneer of comparative religion. In Secular usage religious education is the Teaching of a particular Religion (although in England the term religious instruction would refer Comparative religion is a field of Religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes myths rituals and concepts among the world's religions According to Arthur Jeffery, "It is rare until modern times to find so fair and unprejudiced a statement of the views of other religions, so earnest an attempt to study them in the best sources, and such care to find a method which for this branch of study would be both rigorous and just. Arthur Jeffery ( 18 October 1892 in Melbourne – 2 August 1959 in South Milford Nova Scotia Canada was a Protestant Australian Professor A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos "[60]

In the introduction to his Indica, Biruni himself writes that his intent behind the work was to engage dialogue between Islam and the Indian religions, particularly Hinduism as well as Buddhism. A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism, Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices He writes:[60]

"Abu-Sahl at-­Tiflisi incited me to write down what I know about the Hindus as a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them, and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical We think now that what we have related in this book will be sufficient for anyone who wants to converse with the Hindus, and to discuss with them questions of religion, science or literature, on the very basis of their own civilisation. "

Biruni was aware that statements about a religion would be open to criticism by its adherents, and insisted that a scholar should follow the requirements of a strictly scientific method. According to William Montgomery Watt, Biruni "is admirably objective and unprejudiced in his presentation of facts" but "selects facts in such a way that he makes a strong case for holding that there is a certain unity in the religious experience of the peoples he considers, even though he does not appear to formulate this view explicitly. William Montgomery Watt ( 14 March 1909 – 24 October 2006) was an Emeritus Professor in Arabic and Islamic " Biruni argued that Hinduism was a monotheistic faith like Islam, and in order to justify this assertion, he quotes Hindu texts and argues that the worship of idols is "exclusively a characteristic of the common people, with which the educated have nothing to do. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Literature regarded as central to the Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed much of the morphology and linguistic " He writes:[60]

"The educated among the Hindus abhor anthropomorphisms of this kind, but the crowd and the members of the single sects use them most extensively. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects "

"The Hindus believe with regard to God that he is one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by free-will, almighty, all-wise, living, giving life, ruling, preserving; one who in his sovereignty is unique, beyond all likeness and unlikeness, and that he does not resemble anything nor does anything resemble him. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. "

Biruni argued that the worship of idols "is due to a kind of confusion or corruption. " He writes:[60]

"The physical images are monuments in honour of certain much venerated persons, prophets, sages, angels, destined to keep alive their memory when they are absent or dead, to create for them a lasting place of grateful veneration in the hearts of men when they die. "

According to Watt, Biruni "goes on to maintain that in the course of generations the origin of the veneration of the images is forgotten, and further that the ancient legislators, seeing that the Veneration of images is advantageous, made it obligatory for the ordinary. He mentions the view of some people that, before God sent Prophets, all mankind were idol-worshippers, but he apparently does not presumably held that, apart from the messages transmitted by prophets, men could know the existence and unity of God by rational methods of philosophy. " Biruni argued that "the Hindus, no less than the Greeks, have philosophers who are believers in monotheism. "

Other comparatisons between Islamic theology and Indian theology include the following comparison between the Qur'an and the Indian religious scriptures in the "On the Configuration of the Heavens and the Earth According to [Indian] astrologers" chapter of the Indica:[64]

"[The views of Indian astrologers] have developed in a way which is different from those of our [Muslim] fellows; this is because unlike the scriptures revealed before it, the Qur'an does not articulate on this subject [of astronomy], or any other [field of] necessary [knowledge] any assertion that would require erratic interpretations in order to harmonize it with that which is known by necessity. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world "

"[In contrast, the religious and transmitted books of the Indians do indeed speak] of the configuration of the universe in a way which contradicts the truth which is known to their own astrologers. "

Al-Biruni also had an interest in studying Hermeticism and often criticized its religious views. Hermeticism is a set of philosophical and religious beliefs based primarily upon the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, who is put forth as a He showed an interest in comparative religion, comparing Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit. [65]

## Other contributions

### Biomedical sciences

In the biomedical sciences, al-Biruni's Kitab al-Saidana fi al-Tibb was an extensive medical and pharmacological encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with Indian medicine. A biomedical scientist (or biomedical doctor, biomedician, medical scientist) is a scientist educated in the field of Biological science, especially Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on Siamese twins. Conjoined twins are whose bodies are joined in utero A rare phenomenon the occurrence is estimated to range from 1 in 50000 births to 1 in 200000 births with a somewhat higher incidence [10] The Kitab-al-Saidana was also a materia medica which was celebrated for its in-depth botanical studies of minerals and herbs. Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like [66] It was the earliest to describe the eating of several fungi, including truffles, which are a type of hypogeous fungi. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Epigeal, epigean, epigeic and epigeous are Biological terms describing an Organism 's activity above the Soil surface [67] The earliest documented description of khat also dates back to the Kitab al-Saidana, in which al-Bīrūnī wrote that khat is:[68]

"a commodity from Turkestan. KHAT (1210 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Sports format Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. It is sour to taste and slenderly made in the manner of batan-alu. But qat is reddish with a slight blackish tinge. It is believed that batan-alu is red, coolant, relieves biliousness, and is a refrigerant for the stomach and the liver. A coolant is a fluid which flows through a device in order to prevent its overheating transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that utilize or dissipate it Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species A refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that undergoes a Phase change from a Gas to a Liquid and back "

### Chemistry

Along with al-Kindi and Avicenna, Biruni was one of the first chemists to reject the theory of the transmutation of metals supported by some alchemists. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. The philosopher's stone (lapis philosophorum Greek: Chrysopoeia) is a Legendary substance supposedly capable of turning inexpensive Metals [30]

### Law

In Islamic law and jurisprudence, Biruni understood natural law as the law of the jungle. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that " The Law of the Jungle " is usually an expression that means "every one for himself" and "anything goes" (survival of the strongest He argued that the antagonism between human beings can only be overcome through a divine law, which he believed to have been sent through the prophets of Islam. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Divine law is any Law (or rule) that in the opinion of believers comes directly from the will of God (or a god. Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets [69]

### Linguistics

In linguistics, al-Biruni could speak, read and write in a number of different languages, including Persian, Arabic, Greek, Hebrew and Sanskrit. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical [17] He was also conversant in Syriac and Turkish,[70] and could also speak some Hindi and Latin. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [66]

### Mathematics

He made significant contributions to mathematics, especially in the fields of theoretical and practical arithmetic, summation of series, combinatorial analysis, the rule of three, irrational numbers, ratio theory, algebraic definitions, method of solving algebraic equations, geometry, and the development of Archimedes' theorems. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone In Mathematics, a series is often represented as the sum of a Sequence of terms That is a series is represented as a list of numbers with Combinatorics is a branch of Pure mathematics concerning the study of discrete (and usually finite) objects In Mathematics, an irrational number is any Real number that is not a Rational number — that is it is a number which cannot be expressed as a fraction A ratio is an expression which compares quantities relative to each other Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. In Mathematics, an algebraic equation over a given field is an Equation of the form P = Q where P and Q Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer

## Notes

1. ^ a b Rahman Habib, A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE, Mansell Publishing, p. Scholars in Islamic studies are both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who work in one or more fields of Islamic studies. Science in the Islamic world has played an important role in the History of science. Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese 167:

"A Persian by birth, Biruni produced his writings in Arabic, though he knew, besides Persian, no less than four other languages. "

2. ^ Biruni (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Retrieved April 22, 2007.
3. ^ David C. Lindberg, Science in the Middle Ages, University of Chicago Press, p. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States 18:

"A Persian by birth, a rationalist in disposition, this contemporary of Avicenna and Alhazen not only studied history, philosophy, and geography in depth, but wrote one of the most comprehensive of Muslim astronomical treatises, the Qanun Al-Masu'di. "

4. ^ Mr Koïchiro Matsuura. United Nations: Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16

"Biruni, a scholar in many disciplines - from linguistics to mineralogy - and perhaps medieval Uzbekistan's most universal genius. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly "

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8. ^ a b c d e O'Connor, John J. & Robertson, Edmund F. , “Al-Biruni”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
9. ^ a b c Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed. , Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume Encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics 2, p. 614-642 [642], Routledge, London and New York:

"Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics "

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